The Endocrine System
Immune System Regulation
The Chemistry of Hormones
Hormones
▪are chemical substances secreted by
endocrine cells into theextracellular fluids
that regulate the metabolic activity of other
cells in the body.
▪Can be classified chemically as either
amino acid-based molecules or steroids
Steroid hormones
▪Made from cholesterol, include the sex
hormones made by the gonads (ovaries and
testes) and the hormones produced by the
adrenal cortex.
Hormone Action
▪A given hormone affects only certain tissue
cells or organs, referred to as target cells or
target organs.
GLANDS SECRETE HORMONES INTO
THE BLOODSTREAM TO TARGET
TISSUES
▪ For a target cell to respond to a hormone,
specific protein receptors to which that
hormone can attach must be present on the
cell’s plasma membrane or in its interior.
Functions of the Endocrine System
1. Metabolism and Tissue Maturation
2. Ion Regulation
- helps regulate blood pH, as well as Na+,
K+, and Ca+
concentrations in the blood
3. Water Balance
4.
- production of immune cells
5. Heart Rate and BP Regulation
6. Control of Blood Glucose and other
nutrients
7. Control of Reproductive Functions
8. Uterine Contractions and Milk Release
Negative and Positive Feedback Loops
◦ Control hormone levels
◦ Negative feedback loop
❑Hormone release stops in response to
decrease in stimulus
- Stimulus (eating) raises blood glucose
levels
- Pancreas releases insulin in response to
elevated blood glucose
- Blood glucose decreases as it is used by the
body or stored in the liver
- Insulin release stops as blood glucose
levels normalize
◦Positive feedback loop
❑ As long as stimulus is present, action of
hormone continues
- Infant nursing at mother’s
breast→stimulateshypothalamus→stimulate
s posterior pituitary
- Oxytocin released→stimulates milk
production and ejection from mammary
glands
- Milk release continues as long as infant
continues to nurse
The Major Endocrine Organs
▪The major endocrine organs of the body
include: the pituitary,
pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, and
adrenal glands, pancreas, and gonads
(ovaries and testes)
▪Endocrine glands
- Ductless
- Release hormones
- Directly into target tissues
- Into bloodstream to be carried to target
tissues
antidiuretic hormone, which are transported
along the axons of the hypothalamic
nuerosecretory cells to the posterior pituitary
for storage. They are later released into the
blood in response to
nerve impulses from the hypothalamus.
Oxytocin
- Is released in significant amounts only
during childbirth and nursing.
- It stimulates powerful contractions of the
uterine muscle during
sexual relations, during labor, and during
breastfeeding.

Hormones (Greek word hormone – to set - It also causes milk ejection (let-down
into motion) reflex) in a nursing woman

Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

▪The pituitary gland is approximately the - ADH is a chemical that inhibits or prevents
size of a pea.
urine
▪It hangs by a stalk from the inferior surface production.
of the hypothalamus of the brain, where it is
- ADH causes
snugly surrounded by the sella turcica of the
the kidneys to
sphenoid bone.
reabsorb more
▪It has two functional lobes – the anterior water from the
pituitary (glandular tissue) and the posterior forming urine;
pituitary (nervous tissue). as a result, urine
volume
▪The anterior pituitary gland controls the
decreases, and
activity of so many other endocrine glands
blood volume
(“master endocrine gland”)
increases.
▪The release of each of its hormones is
- In larger amounts, ADH also increases
controlled by releasing hormones and
inhibiting hormones produced by the blood pressure by causing constriction of
hypothalamus.
the arterioles (small arteries). For this
▪The hypothalamus also makes two
reason, it is sometimes referred to as
additional hormones, oxytocin and
vasopressin. - LH stimulates testosterone production by
the interstitial cells of the testes.
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
Pineal Gland
The anterior pituitary produces several
The pineal gland is a small, cone-shaped
hormones that affect many body organs.
gland that
Growth Hormone (GH) hangs from the
roof of the
- Its major effects are directed to the growth
third ventricle
of skeletal muscles and long bones of the of the brain.

body Melatonin

- At the same time, it causes fats to be - The only

hormone
broken down and used for energy while it
secreted from
spares glucose, helping to maintain blood pineal gland in
substantial
sugar homeostasis.
amounts
Prolactin
- Believed to
- Its only known target in humans is the be a “sleep trigger” that plays an
breast.
important role in establishing the body’s
- After childbirth, it stimulates and maintains sleep-wake cycle.
milk production by the
- The level of melatonin rises and falls
mother’s breasts. during the course of the day and night.

Gonadotropic Hormones (FSH and LH) - The peak level occurs at night and makes
us drowsy
- Regulate the hormonal activity of the
gonads (ovaries and testes) - The lowest level occurs during daylight
around noon.
- In women, the FSH stimulates follicle
development in the ovaries. Thyroid Gland

- In men, FSH stimulates sperm production - The thyroid gland is located at the base of
by the testes. the throat, just inferior to the Adam’s apple.

- LH triggers ovulation of an egg from the - It is a fairly large gland consisting of two
ovary and causes the ruptured lobes joined by a central mass, or isthmus.

follicle to produce progesterone and some - The thyroid gland makes two hormones,
estrogen. one called thyroid hormone, the other called
calcitonin.
Thyroid Hormone - Characterized by both physical and mental
sluggishness (no mental impairment)
- Referred to as body’s major metabolic
hormone - Other signs are puffiness of the face,
fatigue, poor muscle tone, low body
- Contains two active iodine-containing
temperature, obesity, and dry skin (Oral
hormones, thyroxine (T4) and
thyroxine is prescribed to treat this condition
thriiodothyronine
(T3)
- Most triiodothyronine is formed at the
target tissues by conversion of thyronine to
triiodothyronine
- Thyroid hormone controls the rate at which
glucose is “burned”, or oxidized, and
converted to body heat and chemical energy
(ATP).
- Thyroid hormone is also important for
normal tissue growth and development,
especially in the reproductive and nervous
systems.
Homeostatic Imbalance

➢Without iodine, functional thyroid

hormones cannot be made.

➢The source of iodine is our diet (seafoods)

➢Goiter is an enlargement of the thyroid

gland that results when the diet is deficient
in iodine.
Hyposecretion of thyroxine may indicate
problems other than iodine deficiency. If it
occurs in early childhood, the result is
cretinism.
- Results in dwarfism and mental retardation ➢Hyperthyroidism generally results from a
(if discovered early, hormone replacement tumor of the thyroid gland.
will prevent mental impairment)
➢Extreme overproduction of thyroxine
Hypothyroidism occurring in adults results
results in a high basal metabolic rate,
in myxedema
intolerance of heat, rapid heartbeat, weight
loss, nervous and agitated
behavior, and a general inability to relax.
Graves’ disease
uncontrollable spasms (tetany), which may
be fatal.
▪Severe hyperparathyroidism causes massive
bone destruction. The bones become very
fragile, and spontaneous fractures begin to
occur

- A form of Thymus
hyperthyroidism
▪ Is located in
- The thyroid the upper
gland enlarges, the thorax,
eyes bulge posterior to
(exophthalmos) the sternum.

Calcitonin ▪ Large in
infants and
- Second important hormone product of the
children, it
thyroid gland
decreases in size throughout
- Decreases the blood calcium ion level by
causing calcium to be deposited in the bones adulthood.

Parathyroid Glands ▪By old age, it is composed mostly of

- The parathyroid glands are tiny masses of fibrous connective tissue and fat.
glandular tissue most often on the posterior
▪ The thymus produces a hormone
surface of the thyroid gland.
called thymosin and others that
- Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is the most
important regulator of calcium ion appear to be essential for normal
homeostasis of the blood.
development of a special group of
- Although the skeleton is the major PTH
white blood cells (T lymphocytes) and
target, PTH also stimulates the kidneys and
intestine to absorb more calcium ions. the immune response.
Adrenal Glands
Homeostatic Imbalance ▪The two adrenal
glands curve
▪If blood calcium ion level falls too low,
over the
neurons become extremely irritable and
overactive. They deliver impulses to the top of the
muscles so rapidly that the muscles go into kidneys like
triangular hats.
▪It is structurally and functionally two
endocrine organs in one.
- it has parts made of glandular
(cortex) and neural tissue (medulla)
▪The central medulla region is enclosed by
the adrenal cortex, which contains three
separate layers of cells.
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
The adrenal cortex produces three major
groups of steroid hormones, collectively
called corticosteroids:
1. Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)
▪Are produced by the outermost adrenal
cortex cell layer.
▪Are important in regulating the mineral
(salt) content of the blood, particularly the
concentrations of sodium and potassium
ions.
▪ These hormones target the kidney tubules
that selectively reabsorb the minerals or
allow them to be flushed out of the body in
urine.
▪When the blood level of aldosterone rises,
the kidney tubule cell reabsorb increasing
amounts of sodium ions and secrete more
potassium ions into the urine.
▪When sodium is reabsorbed, water follows.
Thus, the mineralocorticoids help regulate
both water and electrolyte balance in body
fluids.
2. Glucocorticoids (Cortisone and Cortisol)
▪Glucocorticoids promote normal cell
metabolism and help the body to resist long-
term stressors, primarily by increasing the
blood glucose level.
▪When blood levels of glucocorticoids are
high, fats and even proteins are broken down
by body cells and converted to glucose,
which is released to the blood.
▪ For this reason, glucocorticoids are said to
be hyperglycemic hormones.
▪Glucocorticoids also seem to control the
more unpleasant effects of inflammation by
decreasing edema, and they reduce pain by
inhibiting the pain-causing prostaglandins.
▪Because of their anti-inflammatory
properties, glucocorticoids are often
prescribed as drugs to suppress
inflammation for patients with rheumatoid
arthritis.
▪Glucocorticoids are released from the
adrenal cortex in response to a rising blood
level of ACTH.
3. Sex Hormones
▪ In both men and women, the adrenal cortex
produces both male and
female sex hormones throughout life in
relatively small amounts.
▪ The bulk of the sex hormones produced by
the innermost cortex layer are androgens
(male sex hormones), but some estrogens
(female sex hormones) are also formed.
Homeostatic Imbalance
1. Addisson’s disease (hyposecretion of all
the adrenal cortex hormones)
✓Bronze tone of the skin (suntan)
✓Na and water are lost from the body
✓Muscles become weak and shock is a
possibility
✓Hypoglycemia (↓ glucocorticoids)
✓Suppression of the immune system
2. Hyperaldosteronism (hyperactivity of the
outermost cortical area)
✓Excessive water and sodium ions retention
✓High blood pressure
✓Edema
✓Low potassium ions level (hypokalemia)
3. Cushing’s Syndrome (Excessive
glucocorticoids)
✓Swollen “moon face” and “Buffalo hump”
✓High blood pressure and hyperglycemia
(steroid diabetes)
✓Weakening of the bones (as protein is
withdrawn to be converted to glucose)
✓Severe depression of the immune system
4. Hypersecretion of the sex hormones leads
to masculinization, regardless of sex
Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
▪When the medulla is stimulated by
sympathetic nervous system neurons, its
cells release two similar hormones,
epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine
(noradrenaline), into the bloodstream.
▪Collectively, these hormones are called
catecholamines.
▪The catecholamines of the adrenal medulla
prepare the body to cope with short-term
stressful situations and cause the socalled
alarm stage of the stress response.
▪Glucocorticoids, by contrast, are produced
by the adrenal cortex and are important
when coping with prolonged or continuing
stressors, such as dealing with the death of a
family member or having a major operation
(resistance stage).
Pancreatic Islets
▪ The pancreas, located close to the stomach
in the abdominal cavity, is a mixed gland.
▪ The pancreatic islets, also called the islets
of Langerhans, are little masses of endocrine
(hormone-producing) tissue of the pancreas.
▪ The exocrine, or acinar, part of the
pancreas acts as part of the digestive system.
▪ Two important hormones produced by the
islet cells are insulin and glucagon.
Insulin
➢Hormone released by the beta cells of the
islets in response to a high level of blood
glucose.
➢Acts on all body cells, increasing their
ability to import glucose across their plasma
membranes.
➢Insulin also speeds up these “use it” or
“store it” activities.
➢Because insulin sweeps the glucose out of
the blood, its effect is said to be
hypoglycemic.
➢Without it, essentially no glucose can get
into the cells to be used.
Glucagon
➢Acts as an antagonist of insulin
➢Released by the alpha cells of the islets in
response to a low blood glucose levels.
➢Its action is basically hyperglycemic.
➢Its primary target is the liver, which it
stimulates to break down stored glycogen to
glucose and to release the glucose into the
blood
Gonads
The female and male gonads produce sex
cells. They also produce sex hormones that
are identical to those produced by adrenal
cortex cells. The major differences from the
adrenal sex hormone production are the
source and relative amounts of hormones
produced.
Hormones of the Ovaries
Besides producing female sex cells (ova, or
eggs), ovaries produce two groups of steroid
hormones, estrogens and progesterone.
1. Estrogen
- Responsible for the development of sex
characteristics in women
(primarily growth and maturation of the
reproductive organs) and the
appearance of secondary sex characteristics
at puberty.
- Acting with progesterone, estrogens
promote breast development and
cyclic changes in the uterine lining (the
menstrual cycle)
2. Progesterone
- Acts with estrogen to bring about the
menstrual cycle.
- During pregnancy, it quiets the muscles of and progesterone, and the ovaries become
the uterus so that an implanted embryo will inactive for the rest of the pregnancy.
not be aborted and helps prepare breast
▪ The high estrogen and progesterone blood
tissue for lactation.
levels maintain the lining of the uterus and
Hormones of the Testes prepare the breasts for producing milk.
In addition to male sex cells, or sperm, the ▪ Human placental lactogen (hPL) works
testes also produce male sex hormones, or cooperatively with estrogen and
androgens, of which testosterone is the most progesterone in preparing the breasts for
important. lactation.
Testosterone ▪ Relaxin, another placental hormone, causes
the mother’s pelvic ligaments and the pubic
- Promotes the growth and maturation of the
symphysis to relax and become more
reproductive system organs to prepare the
flexible, which eases birth passage.
young man for reproduction.
- It also causes the male’s secondary sex
characteristics to appear and stimulates the
male sex drive.
- It is necessary for continuous production of
sperm.
- Testosterone production is specifically
Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine
stimulated by LH.
System
Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and
▪ In late middle age, the efficiency of the
Organs
ovaries begins to decline, causing
Placenta menopause.
▪ During very early pregnancy, a hormone - Reproductive organs begin to atrophy
called human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
- Ability to bear children ends
is produced by the developing embryo and
then by the fetal parts of the placenta. - Problems associated with estrogen
deficiency begin to occur
▪ hCG stimulates the ovaries to continue
producing estrogen and progesterone so that (arteriosclerosis, osteoporosis, decreased
the lining of the uterus is not sloughed off in skin elasticity, “hot flashes”)
menses.
▪No such dramatic changes seem to happen
▪ In the third month, the placenta assumes in men.
the job of the ovaries of producing estrogen
▪ Elderly persons are less able to resist stress
and infection.
▪ Exposure to pesticides, industrial
chemicals, dioxin, and pother soil and
water pollutants diminishes endocrine
function, which may explain the higher
cancer rates among older adults in certain
areas of the country.
▪All older people have some decline in
insulin production, and type 2 diabetes
mellitus is most common in this age group