hormones released by the pituitary gland Hormones

produced:
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM - - Collection of GLANDS that secrete
hormones directly into the bloodstream - HORMONES influence
• Thyrotropin-releasing Hormone (TRH) - controls the
secretion of the TSH
different activities in the body to maintain homeostasis
• Gonadotropin-releasing Hormone (GnRH) - stimulates
HOMEOSTASIS - maintenance of the internal and external the production of FSH and LH
equilibrium of the body. e.g. body regulation of temperature,
control of acidity and basicity of the blood, electrolyte balance in
• Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) - initiates the
the body secretion of the ACTH

PITUITARY - located at the base of the brain - master gland -

stimulates growth and controls the functions of other gland
Hormones produced:

 Human Growth Hormone (HGH) - promotes

the release of insulin-like growth factors (IGFs), which
are responsible for the production of proteins in the
body; maintains muscle and bone mass for growth;
also helps in healing THYROID - located below the voice box - regulates body
injuries and repair of tissues
metabolism and causes storage of calcium in the bones
• Thyroid-stimulating Hormone (TSH) - helps in
Hormones produced:
producing and secreting the thyroid hormones by the
thyroid gland
• THYROXINE for increasing of metabolism
• Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH) - it targets the
• CALCITONIN for decreasing of calcium level in blood
ovaries by initiating the development of the follicles in
the ovary, which happens monthly
• Luteinizing Hormone (LH) - initiates ovulation; also
controls the secretion of progesterone
(female sex hormone)
• Prolactin - affects the mammary glands by initiating and
maintaining the production of milk especially during
pregnancy
• Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) - responsible for
the production and secretion of glucocorticoids, the
hormones released by the adrenal gland
• Oxytocin - activated during and after giving birth;
targets the uterus to cause it to contract during giving
birth; also controls milk secretion
in the breasts after giving birth PARATHYROID - located in the neck - controls calcium level in the
• Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) - causes the kidneys to body and normalizes bone growth Hormones produced:
decrease urine production, which helps in conserving
more body water; also known as vasopressin • PARATHYROMONE for regulation of calcium and
phosphorus in the body

PANCREAS - located between the kidneys - Located in the

duodenum of the small intestine - regulates blood sugar levels
Hormones produced:

• INSULIN – helps in lowering the amount of glucose in

the blood when it is too high
HYPOTHALAMUS - located at the base of the brain - it
• GLUCAGON – helps in increasing the level of glucose in
controls the function of the pituitary gland - the hormones
the blood when it is too low
secreted by the hypothalamus affect the release of some

THYMUS - located in front of the heart - enables the body to
produce certain antibodies
Hormones produced:
• THYMOSINE for development of T cells for immunity
and fighting of infections
OVARIES - located in the lower abdomen - influence female traits
and support reproductive function Hormones produced:
• ESTROGEN starts and signals menstruation
• PROGESTERONE for menstrual cycle, thickening of
uterine wall, and pregnancy maintenance
TESTES - located in the lower abdomen - control maturation and
male characteristics
Hormones produced:
• TESTOSTERONE for bone mass, muscle mass, strength,
sperm cell, libido (sexual drive), and RBCs production
ADRENAL GLANDS - are located on top of each kidney. - Each
adrenal gland is divided into the adrenal cortex and the adrenal
medulla. - prepares the body for action, heart rate, and breathing
in times of emergency
Adrenal cortex secretes the following hormones:
• Mineralocorticoids - maintain the balance of minerals
in the body such as sodium and potassium
• Glucocorticoids - break down proteins and triglycerides
needed by the body; help in the formation of glucose;
have anti-inflammatory effects; cause suppression of
immune responses
• Androgens - secreted by both males and females, but it
is an important hormone especially for females because
these are converted into estrogen ADRENAL GLAND
• Adrenal medulla - secretes epinephrine(adrenaline)
and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which are released
during strenuous activities, such as exercise. These
hormones control the heart rate, blood
pressure, blood level, and breathing rate
PINEAL GLAND - It is located in the brain Hormones
produced:
• Melatonin – regulates the sleep cycle
What are the diseases wherein Endocrine Glands are affected?
HYPOTHYROIDISM - Thyroid gland cannot produce the normal
amount of thyroid hormone Symptoms: • Fatigue, weight gain,
sluggishness, decreased memory, dry skin, heavy period, and
always feeling cold, enlarged thyroid Treatment: Hormone
replacement
HYPERTHYROIDISM - Thyroid gland produces too much of the
hormone thyroxine. Symptoms: • Excessive sweating, heat
intolerance, increased bowel movement, tremor or shaking,
nervousness, weight loss, heart palpitations, irregular heart rate
Treatment: Antithyroid medication
METABOLIC SYNDROME - Also known as insulin resistance, the
patient has elevated blood sugar and abdominal obesity.
Symptoms: • High blood pressure, weight gain, baldness (for
men), gout, extra hair growth (for women), irregular periods
Treatment: Lowcarbohydrate diet and improved insulin action like
Glucophage
CUSHING’S SYNDROME - Is a tumor in a pituitary gland, that
causes the adrenal glands to produce too much Cortisol (stress
hormone) Symptoms: • Fatigue, weight gain, trouble sleeping,
irregular periods, extra hair growth, depression Treatment:
Surgery for removal of tumor

ESTROGEN DEFICIENCY - A drop in Estrogen level Symptoms: •

Developed fatigue round the time of menopause Treatment:
Hormonereplacement therapy

TESTOSTERONE DEFICIENCY - A drop in Testosterone level due to

a pituitary, adrenal, or ovary/ testis problem Symptoms: •
Developed fatigue and low libido (sexual drive) Treatment:
Testosterone-replacement therapy
GIGANTISM OR ACROMEGALY - A disease in which pituitary
Oswald Avery (1877-1955) - together with his colleagues
produces too much growth hormones causing the bones and
discovered that the “transforming factor” is the DNA.
body tissues to grow fast in short period of time. Symptoms: •
Very large hands and feet, thickening toes and fingers, prominent Erwin Chargaff (1905-2002) - introduced the “Chargaff’s rule,”
jaw and forehead, coarse facial features, flat nose, large head, which is the basis of the base pairing of nucleotides.
lips, or tongueSymptoms: (for female) • Overproduction of sweat,
delayed puberty, weakness, and deafness Treatment: Removing Alfred Hershey (1908-1997) & Martha Chase (19272003) -
tumor in pituitary gland concluded that DNA is the genetic material present in
bacteriophages
DWARFISM - A disease in which pituitary produces little growth
Rosalind Franklin (1920-1958) & Maurice Wilkins (1916-2004) -
hormones causing the bones and body tissues to grow slowly in a
obtained images of DNA using X-ray crystallography
long period of time Symptoms: • Larger head, breathing
problems, curvature of the spine, bowed legs, crowding of teeth, Francis Crick (1916-2004) & James Watsons (19282004) - created
lower back pain or numbness in the legs. the double-helix model of the DNA.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

➢ made up of chains of nucleotides
➢ Each nucleotide consists of a five-carbon sugar called
deoxyribose (deoxy means “without oxygen”) and a sugar-
phosphate backbone group, which make up the nitrogenous
bases of DNA

There are four nitrogenous bases found in DNA

1. Cytosine (C)
2. Guanine (G)
3. Adenine (A) 4. Thymine (T)
Adenine and Guanine are considered purines because their
structure has two rings
Cytosine and Thymine are considered pyrimidines because their
structure has only one ring

A pyrimidine always pairs with a purine, which was first observed

by Chargaff, leading him to formulate Chargaff’s Rule. Where,
Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T), and Guanine (G) pairs with
Cytosine (C).
▪A:T ▪G:C
DNA
-MOLECULE OF LIFE DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
- doublestranded helix
Frederick Griffith (1877-1941) - hypothesized that there is a
-contains deoxyribose sugar for its backbone
“factor” that can change a harmless bacteria into a harmful one.
-contains the following nitrogenous bases: Adenine, Guanine,
Cytosine, & Thymine

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

- single-stranded helix
- contains ribose sugar for its backbone
- contains: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, & Uracil
REPLICATION
-a process wherein DNA produces new copies of itself that
happens inside the cells’ nucleus
- The process can also be described as semiconservative because
after DNA replication, the new copies contain both the old strand
and the new strand.

Helicase
-an enzyme that attaches to one part of the DNA by
Helicase unzipping it, exposing the nitrogenous base

Binding Proteins
➢ will keep unzipped DNA strands apart

- The unzipped parts will constitute the leading strand as

5’→3’ direction and the lagging strand as a 3’→5’
direction.

Primase
-makes a short stretch of RNA (RNA Primer) on the
Primase DNA template

James Watson and Francis Crick:

Discovered the structure of DNA in 1953; Discussed probable
mode of replication
DNA COMPONENTS
Backbone components:
-Sugar (deoxyribose)
-Phosphate group
Bases: Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine Base Pairs:
-Adenine and Thymine always pair up with 2 hydrogen bonds.
-Cytosine and Guanine always pair up with 3 hydrogen bonds.
INTRO TO DNA

Structure of DNA/RNA (1) Three

Components:

Phosphate Group ‘Pentose

Sugar’
Nitrogenous base

*As a unit, these three componentsmake up one monomer.

-A monomer is an individual unit that acts as a building block for
large biological molecules; nearly identical units
-A polymer is large molecule made up many small monomers.
Think of a chain.