I.

Introduction to Biology
A. Definition of Biology
- defined as the study of all living organisms, the field that deals with all the physiochemical
aspects of life. It is divided into many specialized fields that cover their morphology, anatomy,
behavior, origin and distribution.
B. Branches of Biology
Biology is subdivided into separate branches for convenience of study, though all the
subdivisions are interrelated by basic principles.
the three main branches of biology are:
b.1 Botany
b.2 Zoology
b.3 Microbiology

These 25 are also considered major branches of biology:

1. Anatomy
2. Botany
3. Taxonomy
4. Zoology
5. Microbiology
6. Mycology
7. Phycology
8. Parasitology
9. Virology
10. Physiology
11. Theoretical Biology
12. Cell Biology
13. Genetics
14. Ecology
15. Evolution
16. Biochemistry
17. Biophysics
18. Molecular Biology
19. Structural Biology
20. Biotechnology

21. Plant Physiology

22. Immunology
23. Marine Biology
24. Photobiology
25. Radiobiology

C. Prominent Personalities in Biology

a. Aristotle - the father of Biology, he noted that an animal‘s structure matched its function.
b. Alexander von Humboldt - studies how species in ecosystems are distributed worldwide
through time.
c. Alexander Fleming - discovered penicillin
d. Andres Vesalius - revolutionized the study of biology and practice of medicine by his careful
description of the anatomy of human body. He performed what was previously forbidden the
dissection of human corpses in public to notably body of notorious criminal Jacob Karrer von
Gebweiler.
e. Anton van Leeuwenhoek - ―the father of microbiology‖ he pioneered the microscope and
the
discovery of microbes.
f. Carl Linnaeus - developed the system for naming and organizing living organisms that we
call Taxonomy; thus called ―the father of Taxonomy‖
g. Charles Darwin - the father of evolution, he authored the evolution theory by natural
selection, the cornerstone of modern biology.
h. Charles Henry Turner - his work shows that social insects can modify their behavior as a
result of experience.
i. Galen - revolutionized the way medical research is conducted. Notable discoveries include
the identification of the difference between veins and arteries, recognizing that the larynx
generates voice.
j. Gregor Mendel - an Augustine Friar and scientist. The father of genetics; his study is known
today as the law of Mendelian Inheritance (dominance and recessive genes)
k. James Watson - played a crucial role in the discovery of the molecular structure of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the substance that is the basis of heredity.
l. Jean-Baptise Lamarck - the very simples form of plant and animal life were the result of
spontaneous generation.
m. Joseph Lister - a British surgeon who was a pioneer of antiseptic surgery.
n. Louis Pasteur - ―the father of modern microbiology‖; demonstrated that microorganisms
can
causes disease and how to make vaccines from weakened or attenuated microbes. Developed
the earliest vaccine for fowl cholera, anthrax and rabies. He invented the pasteurization; a
technique for treating milk and other liquid to prevent bacterial contamination.
o. Lynn Margulis - conceptualized the serial endosymbiotic theory of eukaryotic cell
development revolutionized the modern concept of how life arose on Earth.
p. Robert Hooke - first discovered and named cells.
q. Sir Ian Wilmut - first to use nuclear transfer of differentiated adult cells to generate a
mammalian clone, a Finn Dorset sheep named Dolly in 1996.
r. Watson and Crick - discovery of the structure of DNA

D. Characteristics of Life
1. Complexity of Organization (Level of Organization of Living Organism)
a. Cells - the basic unit of life; it is the basic units of structure and function in the human
body.
b. Tissue - a group of connected cells that have a similar function.
there are four (4) basic types of human tissue:
b.1 Epithelial - made up cells that the line inner and outer body surfaces
such as skin and the lining of the digestive tract. It‘s main function
is to protect the body and its internal organ, secretes substances
such as hormones, and absorbed substances like nutrients.
b.2 Muscle - made up of cells that have the unique ability to contract
(become shorter).
b.3 Nervous - made up of neurons (nerve cells) that carry electrical
messages.

` b.4 Connective - made up of cells that form the body‘s structure (i.e., bone and cartilage)

c. Organ - is a structure that consists of two or more types of tissues that work together to
do the same job i.e., brain, heart, lungs, skin, kidneys. liver.
d. Organ System - a group of organs that work together to carry out a complex overall
function.

Organ System Major Tissue and Organs Function

Cardiovascular Heart, blood vessels, blood Transports oxygen,
hormones and nutrients to
the body. Moves waste and
carbon dioxide away from
the
cell.
Lymphatic Lymph nodes, lymph vessels Defend against infection and
disease, moves lymph
between
tissue and the blood stream.
Digestive Esophagus, stomach, small Digest foods and absorb
intestine, Large intestine nutrients, minerals, vitamins
and water.
Endocrine Pituitary gland, Produce hormones that
hypothalamus, communicate between cells
adrenal glans, ovaries, testes
Integumentary Skin, hair, nails Provides protection from
injury and water loss,
physical defense against
infection by microorganisms
and temperature control.
Muscular Cardiac (heart) muscle, Involved in the movement
skeletal and heat production.
muscles, smooth muscles,
tendons
Nervous Brain, spinal cord, nerves Collects, transfers and
 process
information,
Reproductive Female: uterus, vagina, Produce gametes (sex cells)
fallopian and sex hormones.

tube, ovaries
Male: penis, testes, seminal
vesicles
Respiratory Bones, cartilages, ligaments Supports and protects soft
tissue of
body, produces blood cells
and
stores minerals.
Urinary Kidneys, urinary bladder Removes extra water, salts,
and
waste products from blood
and
body; controls pH, controls
water
and salt balance.
Immune Bone marrow, spleen, white Defends against diseases.
blood cells

e. Organism - composed of many organ systems that work together to perform the
functions of an independent individual.
f. Population - organisms belonging to the same species that live in the same area and
interact with one another.
g. Community - populations of different species that live in the same area and interact
with one another.
h. Ecosystem - a natural unit composed of all the living forms in an area, interacting with
all abiotic components of the environment.
i. Biosphere - the part of the planet that has living things.
ii.
2. Metabolism
- the process by which the body converts what you eat and drink into energy. During this
complex process, calories in food and beverages are combined with oxygen to release the
energy
out body needs to function.
a. Catabolism - the breakdown of complex molecules in living organisms to form simpler
ones, together with the release of energy. All called as destructive metabolism.
b. Anabolism - the set of metabolic pathways that construct molecules form smaller units.
These require energy, known as endergonic process. It is the building-up aspect of metabolism.
3. Growth and Development
Growth - growth in living things happen because of different internal process occurring
inside the body of the living organisms mainly due to the formation of new cells. The increase in
number and mass of individuals are two unique characteristics of growth.
Development - a more complicated process than just getting bigger. It is the science that
investigates how a variety of interacting process generates an organism‘s heterogenous shape,
size and structural features that arise on the trajectory from embryo to adult.
4. Sensitivity or response to external stimuli
- one of the complex features of living things is the potential to sense the environment or
surroundings and respond to environmental stimulus.
- stimulus can be chemical, physical and biological.
- an example is a bacteria moving toward away from chemicals is called chemotaxis.
5. Homeostasis
- the ability of the organisms to maintain internal conditions within a narrow range almost
constantly, despite environmental changes.

*Thermoregulation
- a mechanism by which mammals maintain a body temperature tightly controlled self-
regulation independent of external temperatures.

6. Reproduction
- single-celled organisms reproduce by first duplicating their DNA and then dividing it
equally as the cell prepares to divide to form two new cells.
- when reproduction occurs, genes containing DNA are passed along to an organism‘s
offspring. These genes ensure that the offspring will belong to the same species and will have
similar characteristics, such as shape and size.
7. Adaptation
- all living organisms exhibit a ―fit‖ to their environment; this fit is referred to as
adaptation and it is a consequence of evolution by natural selection, which operates in every
lineage of reproducing organisms.

II. Cellular Biology

A. Cytology
- it is the exam of a single cell type, as often found in fluid specimens.
B. History of Cell
- the cell was first discovered and named in 1665 by Robert Hooke. He remarked that ut
looked strangely similar to cellular or small rooms which monks inhabited, thus deriving the
name. What Hooke actually saw was the dead cell wall of plant cells (cork) as it appeared under
the microscope.
Formulation of the Cell Theory
- authored by Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden in 1938.
- it has been suggested that when Schwann heard Schleiden described plant cells with
nuclei, amazed by how similar it was with animal tissues.
- summary of their observations:
a. The cell is the unit of structure, physiology and organization in living things.
b. The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity and a building block in the
construction of organisms.

c. Cells form by free-cell formation, similar to the formation of crystals (spontaneous

generation).

Today, we accept the first two (2) tenets are accurate except for the third one.
* Rudolph Virchow‘s powerful dictum Omnis cellular e cellular meaning ―All cells only arise
from pre-existing cells‖
* Modern Cell Theory
a. All known living things are made up of cells.
b. The cell is structural and functional unit of all living things.
c. All cells come from pre-existing cells by division (no occurrence of spontaneous generation)
d. Cell contains hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during cell division.
e. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition.
d. All energy flow (metabolism & biochemistry) of life occurs within the cells.
C. Types of cell, its parts and movement of materials

C.1. Eukaryotic Cells - any cell or organism that possesses a clearly defined nucleus. It has a
nuclear membrane that surrounds the nucleus, in which the well-defined chromosomes are
located.
Major parts of the Eukaryotic Cells
a. Nucleus - the cell‘s headquarters. It contains the majority of the cell‘s DNA. It
functions to send out a messages to tell the cell to grow, divide or die.
b. Plasma membrane - this membrane is predominantly made of phospholipids and
functions to prevent water-based substances from entering the cells and it ensures each cell
remains separate from its neighbor.
c. Cytoplasm - the cell‘s entire region between the plasma membrane and the nuclear
envelope. It is comprised of organelles suspended in the gel-like cytosol, the cytoskeleton and
various chemicals.
Organelles:
a. Ribosomes - the cellular structures responsible for protein synthesis.
b. Mitochondria - ―powerhouse of the cell‖ contains their own ribosomes and DNA that
functions to generate most of the chemical energy needed to power the cell‘s biochemical
reactions.
c. Peroxisomes - small, round organelles enclosed by single membrane. They carry our
oxidation reaction that bread down fatty acids and amino acids. They also detoxify many
poisons
that may enter the body.
d. Vesicles and Vacuoles - membrane-bound sacs that function in storage and transport.
e. Lysosome - the cell‘s ―garbage disposal‖. Enzymes within the lysosomes aid in
breaking down proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acid, and even worn-out organelles.
f. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum - functions for lipid and steroid production and
detoxification.
g. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum - functions for protein production; particular for export
out of cell
h. Golgi apparatus - for protein modification and export

C.2 Prokaryotic Cells - comprises of bacteria and archaea. Their genetic material isn‘t stored
within a membrane-bound nucleus. Instead, it is stored in a nucleotide that floats in the cell‘s
cytoplasm. They are smaller than eukaryotic cells and are made of a single cell.

Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells:

1. They lack a nuclear membrane.
2. Mitochondria, Golgi bodies, chloroplast, and lysosomes are absent.
3. The genetic material is present on a single chromosome.
4. The histone proteins, the important constituents of eukaryotic chromosomes, are lacking
in them.
5. The cell wall is made up of carbohydrates and amino acids.
6. The plasma membrane acts as the mitochondrial membrane carrying respiratory enzymes.
7. They divide asexually by binary fission. The sexual mode of reproduction involves
conjugation.

Prokaryotic Cell Structure

A prokaryotic cell does not have a nuclear membrane. However, the genetic material is present
in a region in the cytoplasm known as the nucleoid. They may be spherical, rod-shaped, or
spiral.
A prokaryotic cell structure is as follows:

1. Capsule– It is an outer protective covering found in the bacterial cells, in addition to the
cell wall. It helps in moisture retention, protects the cell when engulfed, and helps in the
attachment of cells to nutrients and surfaces.
2. Cell Wall– It is the outermost layer of the cell which gives shape to the cell.
3. Cytoplasm– The cytoplasm is mainly composed of enzymes, salts, cell organelles and is
a gel-like component.
4. Cell Membrane– This layer surrounds the cytoplasm and regulates the entry and exit of
substances in the cells.
5. Pili– These are hair-like outgrowths that attach to the surface of other bacterial cells.
6. Flagella– These are long structures in the form of a whip, that help in the locomotion of a
cell.
7. Ribosomes– These are involved in protein synthesis.
8. Plasmids– Plasmids are non-chromosomal DNA structures. These are not involved in
reproduction.
9. Nucleoid Region– It is the region in the cytoplasm where the genetic material is present.
Reproduction in Prokaryotes
A prokaryote reproduces in two ways:
• Asexually by binary fission
• Sexually by conjugation

Binary Fission
1. The DNA of an organism replicates and the new copies attach to the cell membrane.
2. The cell wall starts increasing in size and starts moving inwards
3. A cell wall is then formed between each DNA, dividing the cell into two daughter cells.
Recombination
In this process, genes from one bacteria are transferred to the genome of other bacteria. It
takes
place in three ways-conjugation, transformation, transduction.
• Conjugation is the process in which genes are transferred between two bacteria through
a protein tube structure called a pilus.
• Transformation is the mode of sexual reproduction in which the DNA from the
surroundings is taken by the bacterial cell and incorporated in its DNA.

• Transduction is the process in which the genetic material is transferred into the bacterial
cell with the help of viruses. Bacteriophages are the virus that initiates the process.

III. Microbiology
A. History of Microbiology
Microbiology is the study of all living organisms that are too small to be visible with the naked
eye. This includes bacteria, archaea, viruses, fungi, prions, protozoa and algae, collectively
known as 'microbes'. These microbes play key roles in nutrient cycling,
biodegradation/biodeterioration, climate change, food spoilage, the cause and control of
disease,
and biotechnology. Thanks to their versatility, microbes can be put to work in many ways:
making life-saving drugs, the manufacture of biofuels, cleaning up pollution, and
producing/processing food and drink.
Microbiologists study microbes, and some of the most important discoveries that have
underpinned modern society have resulted from the research of famous microbiologists, such
as
Jenner and his vaccine against smallpox, Fleming and the discovery of penicillin, Marshall and
the identification of the link between Helicobacter pylori infection and stomach ulcers, and zur
Hausen, who identified the link between papilloma virus and cervical cancer.
Microbiology research has been, and continues to be, central to meeting many of the current
global aspirations and challenges, such as maintaining food, water and energy security for a
healthy population on a habitable earth. Microbiology research will also help to answer big
questions such as 'how diverse is life on Earth?', and 'does life exist elsewhere in the Universe‘?
B. Some Pathology
A few harmful microbes, for example less than 1% of bacteria, can invade our body (the host)
and make us ill. Microbes cause infectious diseases such as flu and measles.
There is also strong evidence that microbes may contribute to many non–infectious chronic
diseases such as some forms of cancer and coronary heart disease. Different diseases are
caused
by different types of micro-organisms. Microbes that cause disease are called pathogens.

Infectious Disease Causative Agent Type of Microbe

Cold Rhinovirus Virus
Chickenpox Varicella zoster Virus
German Measles Rubella Virus
Whooping Cough Bordatella pertussis Bacterium
Bubonic plague Yersinia pestis Bacterium
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculi Bacterium
Malaria Plasmodium falciparum Protozoan
Ringworm Trichophyton rubrum Fungus
Athlete‘s foot Trichophyton Fungus
mentagrophytes

It is important to remember that:

• A pathogen is a micro-organism that has the potential to cause disease.
• An infection is the invasion and multiplication of pathogenic microbes in an individual or
population.
• Disease is when the infection causes damage to the individual’s vital functions or
systems.
• An infection does not always result in disease!
To cause an infection, microbes must enter our bodies. The site at which they enter is known as
the portal of entry.
Microbes can enter the body through the four sites listed below:
• Respiratory tract (mouth and nose) e.g. influenza virus which causes the flu.
• Gastrointestinal tract (mouth oral cavity) e.g. Vibrio cholerae which causes cholera.
• Urogenital tract e.g. Escherichia coli which causes cystitis.
• Breaks in the skin surface e.g. Clostridium tetani which causes tetanus.
To make us ill microbes have to:
• reach their target site in the body;
• attach to the target site they are trying to infect so that they are not dislodged;
• multiply rapidly;
• obtain their nutrients from the host;
• avoid and survive attack by the host’s immune system.
C. Shapes of Microbes
Bacteria are classified into five groups according to their basic shapes and they can exist as
single cells, in pairs, chains or clusters.
• round (coccus)
• rod (bacillus)
• comma (vibrio)
• spiral (spirillum)
• corkscrew (spirochaetes)
IV. Biochemistry
it is the study of the chemical substances and processes that occurs in plants, animals and
microorganisms and the changes they undergo during development and life.
A. Compounds of living organisms
Every living cell contains, in addition to water and salts or minerals, a large number of organic
compounds, substances composed of carbon combined with varying amounts of hydrogen and
usually also of oxygen. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur are likewise common constituents. In
general, the bulk of the organic matter of a cell may be classified as (1) protein, (2)
carbohydrate,
and (3) fat, or lipid. Nucleic acids and various other organic derivatives are also important
constituents. Each class contains a great diversity of individual compounds. Many substances
that cannot be classified in any of the above categories also occur, though usually not in large
amounts.
B. Inorganic compound
- Are important in the body and responsible for many simple functions. are simple molecules
that usually consist of one of two different elements, the following are major inorganic
compounds:
• Water (H2O) - N.B - written with 2 as a subscript; the body is composed of 60-75% water.
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) - N.B - written with 2 as a subscript; is a waste product of cells and
must be eliminated or a serious change in pH can occur known as acidosis.
• Bimolecular oxygen (O2) - N.B - written with 2 as a subscript; is required by all cells for
cellular metabolism and circulating blood must be well oxygenated for maintenance of life.
• Sodium chloride (NaCl)
C. Organic compound
E.1 Carbohydrates
- Most carbohydrates serve as sources of energy for the body. They are converted to glucose,
which in turn is used by the cells in cellular respiration. Other carbohydrates become
incorporated as structural components of genetic macromolecules. Like for example,
deoxyribose is part of the DNA, the genetic material of chromosomes and ribose is part of RNA,
which regulates protein synthesis.

E.2 Lipids
- are essential substances of all cells and serve as a major energy reserve. They may be stored
as
fatty acids or as triglycerides. Other types of lipids are the steroids and phospholipids.
• Cholesterol is a lipid that is a component of cell membranes and is used to produce sex
hormones such as testosterone and estrogen.
• Phospholipids serve as the main components of the phospholipid bilayer cell membrane.

E.3 Proteins
- Proteins are fundamental to life, not only as structural elements (e.g., collagen) and to
provide defense (as antibodies) against invading destructive forces but also because the
essential
biocatalysts are proteins.
- The chemistry of proteins is based on the researches of the German chemist Emil
Fischer, whose work from 1882 demonstrated that proteins are very large molecules, or
polymers, built up of about 24 amino acids.
- It perform a large variety of important functions. Some proteins have a structural
function such as the protein pores in cell membranes, keratin in skin and hair, collagen in
ligaments and tendons, and myosin in muscles.
• Hemoglobin and albumin are proteins that carry oxygen and nutrients in the circulating
blood.
• Antibodies and hormones are proteins.
Enzymes, a particularly important group of proteins and which are catalysts, are
compounds that accelerate chemical reactions, without themselves being permanently
changed.
Each enzyme is specific in that it will catalyze only one type of reaction. Enzymes are vulnerable
to damage by xenobiotics and many toxic reactions occur by changing the shape of the enzyme
("denaturation") or by inhibiting the enzyme ("inhibition").
E.4 Nucleic Acid
Nucleic acids are large organic compounds that store and process information at the molecular
level inside virtually all body cells. Three types of nucleic acids are present:
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
• Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Nucleic acids are very large molecules composed of smaller units known as nucleotides. A
nucleotide consists of a pentose sugar, a phosphate group, and four nitrogenous bases. The
sugar
in DNA is deoxyribose while the bases are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. RNA
consists of the sugar, ribose, plus the four bases adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil. These
two types of molecules are known as the molecules of life. For without them, cells could not
reproduce and animal reproduction would not occur.
F. Types of Chemical Bonds
There are three primary types of atomic bonding: ionic, covalent and metallic
F.1 Ionic Bonding
- it is formed when valence electrons are transferred from one atom to the other to
complete the outer electron shell.

Example: a typical ionically bonded material is NaCl (Salt)