MCPH 2: HUMAN ANATOMY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

CHAPTER 1 HUMAN BODY: AN ORIENTATION

ANATOMY - Thyroid and parathyroids
- Adrenal glands
 A study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts - Thymus
 Observation is used to see sizes and relationships of parts - Pancreas
Two types of Anatomy - Pineal gland
- Ovaries (females) and testes (males)
Gross Anatomy
 Large Structures
Cardiovascular System
 Easily Observable
 Example: using the digestive system organs
 Includes heart and blood vessels
Microscopic Anatomy - Heart pumps
- Vessels transport blood to tissues
 Structures that are too small to be seen
 Blood transports:
 Needs microscope to view
- Oxygen and carbon dioxide
 Examples: Cells and Tissues
- Nutrients
- Hormones
- Blood also contains white blood cells and chemicals that
PHYSIOLOGY
provide protection from foreign invaders
 Study of how the body and its parts work or function
 Structures determines what functions can occur
Lymphatic System
 An example: the air sacs of the lungs have very thin walls, a
feature that enables them to exchange gases and provide  Includes lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and lymphoid
oxygen to the body. organs
 Complements the cardiovascular system by returning leaked
fluids back to bloodstream.
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
 Lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs cleanse the blood
 Six (6) Levels of Structural Organization  Houses white blood cells, which are involved in immunity.
1. Atoms
Respiratory system
2. Cells
3. Tissues
 Includes the nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
4. Organs
bronchi, and lungs
5. Organ System
6. Organisms  Gases are exchanged with the blood through air sacs in the
lungs
- Supplies the body with oxygen
ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW - Removes carbon dioxide

Digestive system
Integumentary System
 Includes the oral cavity (mouth), esophagus, stomach, small
 Forms the external body covering (skin) and includes hair and large intestines, rectum, and accessory organs
and fingernails  Breaks down food
 Waterproofs the body  Allows for nutrient absorption into blood
 Cushions and protects deeper tissue from injury  Eliminates indigestible material as feces
 Produces vitamin D with the help of sunlight
 Excretes salts in perspiration
Urinary system
 Helps regulates body temperature
 Location of cutaneous nerve receptors.
 Includes the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra
Skeletal system  Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
 Maintains acid-base balance
 Consists of bones, cartilages, ligaments, and joints  Regulates water and electrolyte balance
 Provides muscle attachment for movement  Helps regulate normal blood pressure
 Protects vital organs
 Site of blood cell formation; stores minerals
Reproductive system
Muscular system
 For males, includes the testes, scrotum, penis, accessory
 Skeletal muscles contract (or shorten) glands, and duct system
 Produces movement of bones - Testes produce sperm
- Duct system carries sperm to exterior
 For females, includes the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and
Nervous system vagina
- Ovaries produce eggs
 Fast-acting control system - Uterus provides site of development for fetus
 Consists of brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors
 Responds to internal and external stimuli
 Sensory receptors detect changes MAINTAINING LIFE: NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS
 Messages are sent to the central nervous system
Maintaining boundaries
 Central nervous system assesses information and activates
effectors (muscles and glands)  Boundaries separate the “inside” from the “outside”
Movement
Endocrine system  Locomotion
 Movement of substances
 Secretes chemical molecules, called hormones, into the
blood Responsiveness (irritability)
 Body functions controlled by hormones include:  Ability to sense changes and react
- Growth
- Reproduction Digestion
- Use of nutrients  Breakdown and absorption of nutrients
 Endocrine glands include:
- Pituitary gland
MCPH 2: HUMAN ANATOMY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER 1 HUMAN BODY: AN ORIENTATION
NECESSARY LIFE FUNCTIONS Proximal – close to the origin of the body part or point of
attachment to a limb to the body trunk
Metabolism
 Distal – farther from the origin of a body part or the point of
 Chemical reactions within the body attachment of a limb to the body trunk
 Breaks down complex molecules into smaller ones
 Produces energy ATP  Superficial (external) – toward or at the body surface
 Regulates by hormones  Deep (internal) – away from the body surface; more internal
Excretion
 Eliminates excreta (waste) from metabolic reactions REGIONAL TERMS
 Wastes may be removed in urine, feces, or sweat
 Anterior (ventral) body landmarks
Reproduction  Posterior (dorsal) body landmarks
 Occurs on cellular level or organismal level
- On cellular level – new cells are used for growth and
BODY PLANES AND SECTIONS
repair
- On organismal level – the reproductive system handles  Sections are cuts along imaginary lines known as planes
the task  Three types of planes or sections exist as right angles to one
Growth another.

 Increases cell size or body size (through increasing the Sagittal section
number of cells)  divides the body (or organ) into left and right parts
 Hormones play a major role
Median
 or midsagittal, section divides the body (or organ) into equal
SURVIVAL NEEDS left and right parts
Nutrients Frontal
 Chemicals used for energy and cell building  or coronal, section divides the body (or organ) into anterior
 Include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and and posterior parts
minerals
Transverse
Oxygen
 or cross, section divides the body (or organ) into superior and
 Required for chemical reactions inferior parts
 Made available by the cooperation of the respiratory and
cardiovascular systems
Water BODY CAVITIES

 60 to 80 percent of body weight Two internal body cavities

 Most abundant chemical in the human body 1. Dorsal
 Provides fluid base for body secretions and excretions 2. Ventral
Normal Body Temperature Body cavities provide varying
degrees of protection to organs
 37C (98.6)
within them
 Below this temperature, chemical reactions slow and stop
 Above this temperature, chemical reactions proceed to Dorsal body cavity has two
rapidly subdivisions
Atmospheric Pressure Cranial cavity

 Must be appropriate for gas exchange  Brain

 Protected by the skull
Spinal cavity
THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY
 Spinal cord
Special Terminology is used to prevent misunderstanding  Protected by the
Exact terms are used for: vertebrae
 Position Ventral body cavity has two subdivisions separated by the
 Direction diaphragm
 Regions Thoracic cavity
 Structures
 Cavity superior to the diaphragm
Anatomical Position
 Houses heart, lungs, and other organs
 Standard body position used to avoid confusion
 Mediastinum, the central region, houses heart, trachea, and
 Terminology refers to this position regardless of actual body
other organs
position
 Stand erect, feet parallel, arms hanging at the sides with  Protected by the rib cage
palms facing forward and thumbs pointing away from the Abdominopelvic cavity
body
 Cavity inferior to the diaphragm
 Superior abdominal cavity contains the stomach, liver, and
DIRECTIONAL TERMS other organs
- Protected only by trunk muscles
 Explain location of one body structure in relation to another  Inferior pelvic cavity contains reproductive organs, bladder,
 Superior (cranial or cephalic) – toward the head or upper and rectum
part of a structure or the body; above - Protected somewhat by bony pelvis
 Inferior (caudal) – away from the head or toward the lower  No physical structure separates abdominal from pelvic
part of a structure or the body; below cavities
 Medial – toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner  SUBDIVISIONS
side of 1. Four quadrants
2. Nine regions
 Lateral – away from the midline of the body; on the outer
side of
 Other body cavities include:
 Intermediate – between a more medial and a more lateral - Oral and digestive cavities
structure - Nasal cavity
MCPH 2: HUMAN ANATOMY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER 1 HUMAN BODY: AN ORIENTATION
- Orbital cavities
- Middle ear cavities

HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis
 maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions
 A dynamic state of equilibrium, or balance
 Necessary for normal body functioning and to sustain life
Main controlling systems
 Nervous system
 Endocrine system
Homeostatic imbalance
 A disturbance in homeostasis results in disease

MAINTAINING HOMEOSTASIS

All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three components:

receptor, control center, and effector
 Receptor
- Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli)
- Sends information to control center along an afferent
pathway
Control center
 Determines set point
 Analyzes information
 Determines appropriate response
Effector
 Provides a means for response to the stimulus
 Information flows from control center to effector along
efferent pathway
FEEDBACK MECHANISM

Negative feedback
 Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms
 Shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity
 Works like a household thermostat
Positive feedback

 Rare in the human body

 Increases the original stimulus to push the variable farther
 Reaction occurs at a faster rate
 In the body, positive feedback occurs in blood clotting and
during the birth of a baby