Anatomy
 Anatomy (ah-nat′o-me) is the study
of the structure and shape of the
body and its parts and their
relationships to one another.
 Greek word “tomy” to cut and ”ana”
apart
Physiology
 Physiology is the study of how the
body and its parts work or function
 “Physio” = Nature, “Ology” = study
Level of Organization
 Atoms
o Building block of Matter
 Cell
o Smallest unit of Living things
 Tissue
o Group of similar cells that
has same function
 Organ
o Two or more tissue types that
performs specific function for
the body
 Organ System
o Group of organs that work
together to accomplish a
common purpose
 Organism
o Represents highest level of
structural organization
Organ system overview
Integumentary System
 External covering of the body.
 Waterproof the body and protects
deeper tissue from injury.
 Produces Vitamin D
 Secretion of salt in perspiration
 Helps in regulation of body
temperature
 Skin, nails, hair
Skeletal System
 Consist of bones, cartilage and joints
 Support body and provide
framework
 Storage of Minerals
 Cartilages, bones, joint
Muscular System
 It has only one function, to contact.
 Mobility of the whole body as a
whole reflects the activity of skeletal
muscle.
 Skeletal muscles
Nervous System
 Fast-acting control system of the
body;
 Responds to internal and external
changes by activating appropriate
muscles and glands.
 Consist of Brain, Spinal Cord,
Nerves and sensory receptors
Endocrine system
 Glands secrete hormones that
regulate processes such as growth,
reproduction, and nutrient use by
body cells.
 Not connected anatomically
 Pineal, pituitary, thyroid, thymus,
adrenal, pancreas, testis/ovary
Cardiovascular system
 Blood vessels transport blood, which
carries oxygen, nutrients, hormones,
carbon dioxide, wastes, etc.
 The heart pumps blood
 White blood cells and chemicals in
the blood help to protect the body
from such foreign invaders as
bacteria, viruses, and tumor cells.
 Heart, blood vessels
Lymphatic System
 Picks up fluid leaked from blood
vessels and returns it to blood;
 The lymph nodes and other
lymphoid organs help to cleanse the
blood
 Houses white blood cells involved in
immunity.
 Lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels
Respiratory System
 Keep the body supplied with oxygen
and remove carbon dioxide
 Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi, lungs, alveoli
Digestive System
 Breakdown food and deliver
nutrients to the blood
 Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated
as feces
 The liver is considered a digestive
organ because the bile it produces
helps to break down fats.
 The pancreas, which delivers
digestive enzymes to the small
intestine, has both endocrine and
digestive functions.
 Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine,
rectum
Urinary System
 Eliminates nitrogen-
containingwastes from the body
 Regulates water, electrolyte, and
acid-base balance of the blood.
 Kidney, ureter, urinary bladder,
urethra
Reproductive System
 Overall function of the reproductive
system is production of offspring.
 Testes produce sperm and male sex
hormone; ducts and glands aid in
delivery of viable sperm to the
female reproductive tract.
 Ovaries produce eggs and female sex
hormones; remaining structures
serve as sites for fertilization and
development of the fetus.
 Mammary glands of female breasts
produce milk to nourish the
newborn.
 (Male) seminal vesicle, prostate
gland, penis, testis, scrotum
 (Female) mammary gland, ovary,
uterus, vagina
Necessary Life Functions
 Maintaining Life
 Human Physiology
 Necessary Life functions
 Maintaining boundaries
 Movement
 Responsiveness
 Digestion
 Metabolism
 Excretion
 Reproduction
 Growth
Survival Needs
 Nutrients
 Oxygen
  Water
 Normal body Temperature
 Atmospheric Pressure
Directional Term
Superior (Cranial or Cephalic)
 Towards the head end; above
 Forehead is superior than the nose
Inferior (Caudal)
 Away from the head end; below
 Navel is inferior to the breastbone
Anterior (Ventral)
 Towards or in the front of the body;
front
 Breastbone is anterior to the spine
Posterior (Dorsal)
 Towards or at the back of the body;
behind
 Heart is posterior to the breastbone
Medial
 Towards the midline; inner side
 Heart is medial to the arm
Lateral
 Away from the midline; outer side
 Arms are lateral to the chest
Proximal
 Close to the point of attachment
 The elbow is proximal to the wrist
Distal
 Farther from the point of attachment
 The knee is distal to the thigh
Superficial (External)
 Towards or at the body surface
 Skin is superficial to the skeleton
Deep (Internal)
 Away from the body surface
 Lungs are deep to the rib cage
Intermediate
 Between a more medial and more
lateral structure
 Collarbone is intermediate between
breastbone and shoulder
Body Planes and Section
Sagittal Section
 cut along the lengthwise, or
longitudinal, plane of the body
dividing the body into right and left
parts.
 Median (Midsagittal) section
 Parasagittal (Para=Near)
 Body Planes and Section
Frontal
 a cut along a lengthwise plane that
divides the body (or an organ) into
anterior and posterior parts.
 It is also called a corona section.
 Body Planes and Section
Transverse section
 cut along a horizontal plane, dividing
the body or organ into superior and
inferior parts. It is
 Cross section.
Body Cavity
- A fluid-filled space inside the body
that holds and protects internal organ
Dorsal: Cranial & Spinal/Vertebral 6. Extracellular fluid pH homeostasis
Ventral: Thoracic cavity, Abdominal cavity 7. The volume of body water
& Pelvic homeostasis
Cranial Components of Homeostatic
Control Systems
- The brain, the meninges of the brain,
and cerebrospinal fluid Receptor

Spinal/Vertebral  type of sensor that monitors and

responds to changes in the
- The spinal cord, the meninges of the environment.
spinal cord, and the fluid-filled  Information flows from the receptor
spaced between them. to the control center along the
afferent pathway
Thoracic Cavity
Control center
- Lungs, Heart, Trachea
 Determines the level at which a
Abdominal Cavity variable is to be maintained. This
component analyzes the information
- Stomach, Intestine, Pancreas, Kidney it receives and then determines the
appropriate response or course of
Pelvic action.
Urinary Bladder, Rectum, Ovary (for
female) Effector
 Provides the means for the control
Homeostasis center’s response (output) to the
stimulus.
 ὅμοιος homoios, "similar“ and  Information flows from the control
στάσις stasis, "standing still" center to the effector long the
 Unchanging efferent pathway.
 Body’s ability to maintain relatively
stable internal conditions even
though the outside world is
continuously changing.
Examples
1. Thermoregulation  
2. Baroreflex
3. Osmoregulation
4. Blood glucose homeostasis
5. Blood oxygen content homeostasis
Feedback Mechanism
Negative Feedback Mechanism
- the net effect of the response to the
stimulus is to either shut off the
original stimulus or reduce its
intensity
- Examples: regulate heart rate, blood
pressure, breathing rate, the release
of hormones, and blood levels of
glucose
Positive feedback Mechanisms
- Rare in the body because they tend
to increase the original disturbance
(stimulus) and to push the variable
farther from its original value.
- Examples: oxytocin is a hormone
released by the pituitary gland during
child birth.
Difference between positive and negative
feedback
Positive
- Less frequent
- Exhibits positive correlational
between stimulus and product
- Less associated stability
- Enhances changes
- Wider range
- May be associated with vicious
cycles and even death
- May require external interruption
Negative
- More frequent
- Exhibits negative correlational
between stimulus and product
- Closely associated stability
- Resist changes
- Narrower range
- Most often associated with restoring
homeostasis
- Does not require external
interruption
Common substance in living system
Water
 Most abundant substance in living
cells
 Necessity in digestion to break down
molecules
 Serves as medium or solvent for
most reactions
 Helps in controlling normal body
temperature
Carbon dioxide
 Waste product of cellular respiration
 It can form into carbonic acid if
accumulated within the cell
Molecular oxygen
 Required by all organism that breath
air
 Necessary to convert chemical
energy in food into another form of
chemical energy (ATP)
Ammonia
 Molecule from decomposition of
protein
 Digestive process
 Conversion of Amino acid to ATP
 Nitrogen in Ammonia is essential in
Amino Acid which is building block
of protein. 
 Enzymes in Liver converts toxic
ammonia into urea
Mineral Salt/Electrolytes
 Calcium – necessary for muscle
contraction and nervous
transmission 
  Phosphate – necessary to produce
high energy molecule ATP
 Chloride – Nervous transmission
 Sodium and potassium – Muscle
contraction and nervous
transmission  -
Carbohydrates
 Energy storage/production and
structural strengthening
Lipids
 Substance that are insoluble with
water such as Fats, Phospholipids,
Steroids, etc.
 Saturated: Whole milk, butter, egg
pork, and palm oil; too much
contributes to cardiovascular disease
 Unsaturated: Sunflower, corn and
fish oil
Protein
 Repair and build body’s tissue
 Allows metabolic reactions  EPITHELIUM: covers & lines the
 Growth and maintenance
 Act as messenger
 Fluid balance
 Strengthen immune system  hormones & other substances
 Transport and stores nutrients
Nucleic Acid
 Gene expression
 Regulation of cellular activities
 Storage and transmission of genetic
information
 Some RNA helps in protein
synthesis
Adenosine Triphosphate
 Intracellular signaling
 DNA and RNA synthesis
 Purinergic signaling
 Synaptic signaling
 Active transport
 Muscle contraction
Tissue
Group of cells that has similar
functions and structure
- Four types
 Epithelial: Covers and protects
body
 Connective: Provides support
 Muscle: Movement
 Nervous: Control and
communication
Epithelial Tissue
 Surface and lining layers
 Cells close together
 Avascular
 It protects underlying tissue
 It absorbs
 It secretes
 Epithelial tissue excretes
 PROPER/PRIMARY
outer and inner body
 GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM:
forms the glands and secretes
Classification based on shapes
Squamous
 flattened shape and flat nucleus, fast
absorption and diffusion, making
thin membranes
Cuboidal 
 spherical nucleus, cuboidal cell
shape, absorb nutrients and produce
secretions like sweat
Columnar
 Elliptical nucleus, column shaped
cell with hexagonal cross-section,
tall, thick & cushion underlying
 tissues, absorb nutrients and produce
secretions
Classification based on arrangement
Simple
 one layer of cells.
Stratified
 Multiple layers set up on top of each
other, like bricks.
Pseudostratified
 Mostly one layer but formed with
cells of different shapes and sizes
Naming Epithelial Tissue
Number of layers + Shape of its cells.
Example:
 Simple squamous epithelium
 Pseudostratified ciliated
columnar epithelial tissue
Classification based on function
Mucous membrane
 Lines the digestive, respiratory,
urinary and reproductive tracts
 Usually ciliated
 Produced mucous
Glandular epithelium
 Specialized for synthesizing special
compound
 Exocrine and Endocrine
Endothelium
 Lines the circulatory system
 Single layer of squamous type of cell
 Endocardium – endothelium that
lines the heart
 Blood capillary is consisting of
single layer of endothelium
Mesothelium
 Also known as Serous Tissue
 Tissue that lines cavities of the body
 Pleura – serous membrane that lines
thoracic cavity
 Pericardium – serous membrane that
covers the heart
 Peritoneum – serous membrane
lining the abdominal cavity
Connective Tissue
 Made of cell with lots of intercellular
material called MATRIX.
 Fibers of tough collagen or fibers of
flexible elastin can be embedded in
this matrix
 Three subgroups:
 o Loose connective tissue
o Dense connective tissue
o Specialized connective tissue
Loose connective tissue
 Fills space between and penetrate the
organ
 Three types loose connective tissue
 Areolar - Widely distributed type of
loose connective tissue. Three types
of cells: Fibroblast, Histiocytes, mast
cell
 Adipose – with fats stored in its cells
 Reticular – framework of liver,
spleen, lymph nodes and bone
marrow
Dense Connective tissue
 Has a regular arrangement of
embedded fibers
 type of connective tissue with fibers
as its main matrix element
o Regular arrangement -
Tendons, ligaments and
aponeuroses
o Irregular arrangement –
muscle sheath, joint capsule
and fascia
Specialized connective tissue
 Cells of cartilage are called
Chondrocytes
 Three types of cartilage
o Hyaline – found in articular
bone surface
o Fibrocartilage – strong,
flexible, supportive substance
found between bones
o Elastic – intercellular matrix
are embedded with network
of elastic fibers and is firm
and flexible
Muscle Tissue
 It has the ability to shorten and
thicken (contract) due to interaction
between two proteins in muscle cell;
actin and myosin
 There are three types of muscle
tissue; Smooth, Striated or Skeletal
and Cardiac
Smooth Muscle tissue
 Non striated involuntary
 Provides involuntary movement
 Makes up:
o Digestive tract
o Genitourinary
o Respiratory tracts
o Blood vessel
o Lymphatic vessels
Skeletal Muscle tissue
 Attached to movable parts of
skeleton
 Capable of rapid, powerful
contraction and long states of
partially sustains contraction
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
 Found only in the heart
 Striated like skeletal and
uninucleated like smooth muscle
 Cylindrical
Nervous Tissue
 composed of two types of nerve
cells;
1. Neurons
- Conducting cells
- Composed of cell body with
nucleus, dendrites and axon
2. Neuroglia
- Supporting and protecting cells