ENDOCRINE

SYSTEM

PREPARED BY: LG, RMT

 Endocrine System
●Second controlling system of the body
○Nervous system is the fast-control system(high-speed electrical systems)
○Endocrine system works slowly & has longer lasting effects

●Nervous & endocrine systems interact to control and coordinate the body’s
activities

●Uses chemical messengers (hormones) released in the blood

●Hormones control several major processes
○Reproduction
○Growth and development
○Regulation of metabolism
 Hormones
●Chemical messengers carried throughout the body thru bloodstream
●Each affects specific target cells

●Classification:
1. Amino-acid based: amines, peptides, polypeptides, proteins
- bind to specific receptors in the target cell membrane
- binding initiate chemical reactions that alter the target cell’s metabolism
2. Steroid –
- released by ovaries, testes, adrenal cortex
- penetrate target cell’s membranes & interact directly with genes in
nucleus to alter metabolism
Mechanisms of hormone actions:
● Hormones affect only certain tissues or organs (target cells or organs)
● Target cells must have specific protein receptors
● Hormone-binding alters cellular activity

Effects caused by hormones:

● Changes in plasma membrane permeability or electrical state
● Synthesis of proteins, such as enzymes
● Activation or inactivation of enzymes
● Stimulation of mitosis
● Promotion of secretory activity
Control of hormone release:
● Hormone levels in blood -mostly maintained by negative feedback
● low hormone levels in blood triggers the release of more hormone
● Release stops when appropriate hormone level in the blood is reached

Stimulus that activate endocrine glands & hormone release:

1. Hormonal : endocrine glands are activated by other hormones
2. Humoral : changing blood levels of certain ions stimulate release
3. Neural: nerve impulses stimulate release (mostly under SNS)

Negative feedback mechanisms:

- chief means of regulating blood levels of nearly all hormones
 Endocrine glands & their hormones
● Endocrine or “ductless” glands release hormones in the bloodstream

Hypothalamus
● Major endocrine glands:
Pineal gland
● Hypothalamus Pituitary gland

● Pituitary gland Thyroid gland

● Pineal gland Parathyroid glands
Thymus
● Thyroid glands
● Parathyroid glands Adrenal glands

● Adrenal glands Pancreas

● Thymus gland Ovary (female)

● Pancreas
● Gonads (ovaries & Testes) Testis (male)
 Hypothalamus
● part of nervous system
- recognized as a major endocrine organ
- produces releasing hormones & inhibiting hormones that
control the release of anterior pituitary hormones
- produces oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone and transports it to
posterior pituitary for storage
 Pituitary Gland
● “master gland” of the endocrine system; most impt. of endocrine gland
● affects activities of many other endocrine glands
● Controlled by hypothalamus
● provides direct link between nervous & endocrine system w/hypothalamus
● hormones either - directly control body functions (ex. growth hormone) or
- target & stimulate other endocrine glands to release hormones
● 2 lobes: anterior & posterior
- Anterior lobe (glandular): adenohypophysis
- make up 70% of pituitary gland, composed of epithelial tissue
- Posterior lobe (neural–“neurohypophysis”): connected to hypothalamus
- Hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
 Anterior lobe hormones
● Anterior lobe of pituitary gland synthesize and release hormones in response to
releasing hormones received from hypothalamus

● 6 anterior lobe hormones

- 2 of 6: cause a direct effect on target organs (GH & prolactin)
- 4 of 6: “trophic hormones” – regulate other endocrine glands
- TSH : Thyroid Stimulating Hormone - Thyroid gland
- ACTH : Adrenocorticotrophic hormone - Adrenal gland
- FSH: Follicle Stimulating Hormone – ovaries & testes
- LH: Luteinizing Hormone – ovaries & testes
 Growth hormone
● GROWTH HORMONE (GH): somatotropin
- general metabolic hormone
- growth of skeletal muscle & long bones (determines final body size)
- causes repair of cells & tissues by stimulating cell division
- anabolic : cause protein build-up
- causes fats to be broken down to be used as energy
● Homeostatic imbalance:
- Pituitary dwarfism: GH hyposecretion during childhood 🡪 miniature(4’)
- Gigantism: GH hypersecretion during childhood 🡪 extreme ht (8-9’)
- Acromegaly: hypersecretion after bone growth has ended
- malformed facial features
 Prolactin
● PROLACTIN
- targets mammary glands
- stimulate milk production during pregnancy
- function in men (?)
 Thyroid Glands
● Location: anterior neck
● Thyroid hormones: thyroxine(T4), triiodothyronine(T3), calcitonin

● For Thyroxine and T3:

- Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)- produced by anterior pituitary
gland stimulates release of thyroxine
- Thyroxine (T4): major hormone secreted by thyroid follicles
- T3: mostly formed at target tissue (T4 converted to T3)
- iodine is necessary to produce functional T3 & T4
- T4 & T3 acts on all body cells, increase metabolic rate & pace of cell
division
Function of thyroxine
● maintain the rate at which the body uses fats and carbohydrates
● help regulate protein production
● help control body temperature, influence heart rate
● Calcitonin: made by parafollicular cells
- decrease blood calcium levels by
1. reducing rate of bone destruction and
2. depositing calcium in the bones
- released directly to blood when blood calcium levels increase
- hypocalcemic hormone
- antagonistic to Parathyroid hormone
- production is meager or ceases entirely in adults
- few effect of hyper or hyposecretion are known

** PTH & Calcitonin: maintain stable level of Calcium in the blood

 Thyroid Glands
● Homeostatic imbalance:
- Goiter: thyroid gland enlargement secondary to Iodine deficiency,
or nodules developing within thyroid glands
- Hypothyroidism:
Cretinism (children)
Myxedema (adults)
- Hyperthyroidism:
Grave’s disease- autoantibodies attacks thyroid glands, causing it to
produce excess thyroxine (enlarged thyroid + exophthalmos)
 Parathyroid Glands
● Parathyroid hormones (PTH)
- location: 4(+) tiny glands, posterior part of thyroid gland
- most important regulator of blood Calcium homeostasis
- has opposite effect to calcitonin
- stimulates bone breakdown (destruction) to release Calcium in blood
and increase blood Calcium level
- stimulus for PTH released- drop in blood calcium level
- “hypercalcemic hormone”
** PTH & Calcitonin: maintain stable level of Calcium in the blood
● Homeostatic imbalance:
- Tetany: uncontrollable muscle spasms due to low blood calcium levels
 Adrenal Glands
● location: sitting (like “hats”) on top of kidneys
● 2 portions: cortex (outer layer) & medulla (inner layer)

Adrenal cortex: 3 major groups of steroid hormones corticosteroids

a. outer layer: Mineralocorticoids – aldosterone
- regulates electrolyte(Na, K) & water balance
b. middle layer: Glucocorticoids (cortisol & cortisone)
- promote cell metabolism & help resisting long-term stressors
- increase blood glucose levels, control inflammation
c. inner layer: Sex hormones- mostly androgen, some estrogen
● ADRENAL GLAND: sitting (like “hats”) on top of kidneys

● Adrenal cortex (outer): 3 major groups of steroid hormones

collectively termed corticosteroids
a. outermost layer: Mineralocorticoids – aldosterone
b. middle layer: Glucocorticoids (steroid- cortisol & cortisone)
c. inner layer: Sex hormones- mostly androgen, some estrogen

● Adrenal medulla (inner):

- Catecholamines: nor/epinephrine (nor/adrenaline)
 Adrenal Glands : Adrenal Cortex
● Mineralocorticoids: Aldactone
- produced by outermost cell layer of adrenal cortex
- regulates electrolyte(Na, K) & water balance
- regulate water & electrolyte (Na & K) balance in body fluids
- in cases of high blood aldosterone level- kidney reabsorb Na &
secrete K in urine
- when sodium is reabsorbed, water follows sodium 🡪 edema
- low potassium 🡪 weakness

● Stimulus for aldosterone release

1. humoral: low sodium or high potassium levels in blood
2. drop in BP -> Renin is released –> stimulates release of aldosterone
● Glucocorticoids: cortisone & cortisol
- rising ACTH level increases release of glucocorticoids
- promote normal cell metabolism
- helps body resist long-term stressors (by increasing blood glucose)
- high glucocorticoid levels: convert fats & proteins 🡪 to glucose and
release it in the blood (“hyperglycemic hormones”)
- anti-inflammatory effect: decreases edema
- reduce pain (analgesic): by inhibiting prostaglandins

● Sex hormones: produced in small amounts throughout life

- produced by innermost cortex layer
- predominantly androgen (male sex hormone), some estrogens
 Homeostatic imbalance
● Addison’s disease: generalized hyposecretion all adrenal cortex hormones
- low aldosteronism: bronze skin tone, low Na & water 🡪 low BP
- low glucocorticoid level: low blood glucose (hypoglycemia)
🡪 weakness, burnout(cannot cope with stress), susceptibility to
infection

● Hyperaldosteronism: hyperactivity of outermost adrenal cortex layer

-high aldosterone: excess sodium & water retention -> edema & HTN
- potassium loss (heart and nervous system effects)
- cause: ACTH-releasing tumor (pituitary), adrenal cortex tumors
 Homeostatic imbalance
● Cushing’s syndrome: due to excessive glucocorticoids
- swollen “moon face”, buffalo hump of fat (upper back),
hyperglycemia, hypertension, depressed immune system

● Masculinization: hypersecretion of sex hormones

- masculine body hair distribution, beard develops
 Adrenal Glands : Adrenal Medulla
● Catecholamines: nor/epinephrine (nor/adrenaline)
- help body deal rapidly and cope with short-term stressful situation –
”fight-or-flight response”
- increase heart rate, blood pressure & blood glucose
- dilate small passageways of lungs (airways)

● Homeostatic imbalance:
-Hypersecretion of catecholamines: tachycardia, hypertension,
irritability, excessive sweating (hyperhydrosis)
● PINEAL GLAND: location- posterior diencephalon
- secretes melatonin ( secretions follow a 24-hour cycle)
- melatonin levels rises at night and falls around mid-day
- high levels promote drowsiness
- help set the body’s internal clock

● THYMUS GLAND: posterior to sternum

- Thymosin: development of T-lymphocyte and immune response
- most active in children, shrinks throughout adulthood
 Gonads: Ovaries & Testes
● OVARIES: estrogen & progesterone TESTES: testosterone
- estrogen, progesterone, testosterone stimulate sex cell production
- maintain secondary sexual characteristics
- regulate hormonal activity of ovaries and testes (gonads)

● FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH)

- women: FSH 🡪 ovaries- stimulate maturation of ovum & estrogen production
- men: FSH 🡪testes- stimulate sperm production & development
LUTEINIZING HORMONE (LH)
-women: LH🡪 triggers ovulation of egg & produce progesterone (ruptured follicle)
-men: (Interstitial cell of testes) LH 🡪 stimulates testosterone production

● Homeostatic imbalance:
- Sterility: hyposecretion of LH or FSH
 Pancreatic islets
- Islet of Langerhans: endocrine tissues scattered among exocrine tissue
- Islet cells: act as fuel sensors
● INSULIN: produced by beta cells of islets
- reduces blood glucose (increases ability of cells to import glucose)
(by stimulating uptake of glucose inside cells & promote storage of glucose in liver as glycogen)
- stimulus: high blood glucose levels
- hypoglycemic: lowers blood glucose

● GLUCAGON: produced by alpha cells of islets

- stimulus: low blood glucose level
- mobilizes glucose out of liver (breaks glycogen into glucose)
(stimulates liver to break down glycogen into glucose and release it to bloodstream)
- hyperglycemic: increase blood Glucose
 Diabetes mellitus (DM)
● Diabetes = siphon ; mel= honey 🡪 something sweet is passing
● Relative or absolute deficiency or lack of insulin
● Lifetime condition
● Elevated blood glucose -> excessive urination, thirst, hunger, wt. loss

● Type 1 DM- total lack of or absence of insulin production

● Type 2 DM – deficient insulin production +/- insensitivity of insulin

receptors to insulin
- hereditary (genes), obesity, physical inactivity
Endocrine gland Location Hormone
Hypothalamus Brain Releasing & Inhibiting hormones; Oxytocin, ADH
Pituitary gland Brain GH, PRL, TSH, ACTH, FSH. LH
Thyroid gland neck Thyroxine (T4), Triiodothyronine (T3), Calcitonin
Parathyroid gland Neck – behind thyroid PTH
Adrenal gland
Adrenal cortex Corticosteroids:
(outer) Above kidneys Outer: mineralocorticoid (Aldactone)
Middle: glucocorticoids (cortisol & cortisone)
Inner: sex hormone (androgen>> estrogen)
Adrenal medulla Adrenaline & noradrenaline
Thymus Posterior to sternum Thymosin
Pancreas Inferior & posterior to stomach Insulin (Beta-cells), Glucagon (alpha cells)
Pineal gland diencephalon melatonin
Ovaries Estrogen & progesterone
Testes Testosterone
 Posterior lobe hormones
● Not an endocrine gland- receives hormones from hypothalamus
● Hormones: ADH & oxytocin- affect target organs directly

● OXYTOCIN:
- released only during childbirth and nursing
- stimulates powerful contraction of uterine muscle during
sexual relations, labor and breastfeeding
- stimulates mammary glands to release milk during breastfeeding
(letdown reflex)
 Posterior lobe hormones
● ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH): vasopressin
- diuresis= urine production
- antidiuresis= inhibit or prevents urine production
- targets kidneys and helps body to maintain its water balance
- increases return of water to blood during urine production resulting
to decreased urine volume and increased blood volume
- larger amounts increases BP by constriction of small arteries

- water and alcohol inhibits ADH = results in large water output

 Homeostatic imbalance
● Diabetes insipidus or SIADH
- hyposecretion of ADH
- excessive urine output
- continuous thirst 🡪 drink large amounts of water
Other Hormone-Producing Tissues and Organs
● Parts of the small intestine
● Parts of the stomach
● Kidneys
● Heart
● Many other areas have scattered endocrine cells

Endocrine Function of the Placenta

• Produces hormones that maintain the pregnancy
• Some hormones play a part in the delivery of the baby
• Produces human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in addition to estrogen,
progesterone, and other hormones
Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine System
● Most endocrine organs operate smoothly until old age
○Menopause is brought about by lack of efficiency of the
ovaries
○Problems associated with reduced estrogen are common
○Growth hormone production declines with age
○Many endocrine glands decrease output with age