PHYSIOLOGY II

BATCH 5
SEMESTER 2
DPT

Dr Arnab Altaf
DPT(UHS)
MPHIL(RCRS)
Faculty Member
Hajvery University (HU)
Endocrine Glands
 Learning Objectives:
• Students will able to learn:
1.What is Endocrinology?
2.What are Endocrine glands?
3.Hormones?
4.Effects of hormones on target glands?
5.Homeostatic Imbalances?
 Endocrine Glands
• Hypothalamus
• Pituitary Islets of Langerhans
• Gonads
– Ovaries
– Testes
• Pineal gland
• Thymus
• others
– Anterior lobe
– Posterior lobe
• Thyroid gland
• Parathyroid glands
• Adrenal Glands
– Cortex
– Medulla
 Hypothalamus
Part of brain
Regulates ANS, emotions,
feeding/satiety, thirst, body
temperature, etc.
Hormones related to these
functions
“Releasing hormones”
Axonal transport to posterior lobe
 Anterior Pituitary
• “Releasing” hormones regulate AP aka
adeno hypo physis “glands” “under” “growth”
• All proteins
– TSH (thryoid stimulating hormone/thyrotropin)
– ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)
– FSH (gonadotropin)
– LH (gonadotropin)
• Tropins/tropic hormones
– GH (growth hormone)
– Prolactin-releasing H
• Hypothalamic Pituitary Axis Animation : IP Web
ANTERIOR PITUITARY
Anterior Pituitary
Action
 Anterior P. Homeostatic
Imbalances
Growth hormone (GH or hGH)
– Promotes mitosis, cell division
– Elongation of long bones, etc.
– Healing of wounds Lack of hGH retards growth
– Hypersecretion in youth produces giantism
– Hyposecretion in childhood produces pituitary dwarfism
– Hypersecretion in adult produces acromegaly
 Posterior Pituitary
• Axonal transport to Posterior Pituitary aka
neuro hypo physis
“nerve” “under” “growth”

• Hypothalamic cell bodies synthesize

– oxytocin
– ADH
Posterior Pituitary
 Pituitary—Posterior lobe
• Oxytocin
– Stimulates smooth muscle contraction of uterus &
mammary glands.
• Antidiuretic H.
– Stimulates water reabsorption in collecting ducts.
– Stimulates vasoconstriction (vasopressin)
– Lack  diabetes insipidus
 Posterior Pituitary
Homeostatic Imbalances
ADH
– Hyposecretion produces diabetes insipidus
“tasteless”
– Excessive thirst and urination
• central or neurogenic DI
• gestagenic or gestational DI
• nephrogenic DI
• dipsogenic DI
 Thyroid Gland
• Location in neck
– Inferior to larynx
– Anterior & lateral to trachea
• Composed of follicles
– Follicle cells produce thyroglobulin
• Thyroxin (T4)
• Triiodothyronine (T3)
– Both “thyroid hormone”, body’s major metabolic hormone

• Parafollicular/ C cells
• Calcitonin
– Decreases blood Ca2+ by depositing it in bones
THYROID GLAND
 Homeostatic imbalances
• Hypothyroidism results
– Myxedema (in adults)
– Goiter—low levels of iodine
– Cretinism (in children)
• Hyperthyroidism results
– Graves disease
 Parathyroid Glands
• Four small glands embedded in posterior of
thyroid
– Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
– Stimulates osteoclasts to free Ca2+ from bone
– Stimulates Ca2+ uptake from intestine & kindey
Parathyroid Glands
 Parathyroid Homeostatic
Imbalances
• Severe hyperparathyroidism causes massive
bone destruction

• If blood Ca2+ fall too low, neurons become

overactive, resulting in tetany
HYPERPARATHYROIDISM
 Adrenal Glands
One on top of each kidney
Cortex
Corticosteroid
glandular
Medulla
Catecholamines
neurohormonal
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
 Adrenal Cortex
• Cortex
– Activity stimulated by ACTH
– Controls prolonged responses by secreting
corticosteroids.
– Mineralcorticoids
• Aldosterone regulate salt and water balance
– Glucocorticoids
• Cortisol regulate glucose metabolism and the immune system .
– Gonadocorticoids
• Androgens
• Estrogens
Adrenal Cortex
 Adrenal Cortex Imbalances
• Hypersecretion leads to Cushing’s disease
– ACTH-releasing tumors or side effects of
corticoid drugs.

• Hyposecretion leads to Addison’s Disease

– Deficits in glucocorticoids and mineralcorticoids
 Adrenal Medulla
• Medulla
– The adrenal medulla mediates short–term
responses by secreting catecholamine hormones.
– Cells are modified neurons (lack axons)
• Epinephrine (adrenaline)
• Norepinephrine (noreadrenaline)
– enable a rapid ( fight-or-flight ) responses to stress
by increasing blood glucose and blood pressure and
directing blood to the heart, brain, and skeletal
muscles.
Adrenal Medulla
 Pancreas
• Consists of two major types of secretory
tissues which reflects its dual function
– Exocrine gland
• secretes digestive juice
• localized in the acinar cells
– Endocrine gland
• releases hormones
• localized in the islet cells (islets of Langerhans)
Pancreas
 Pancreatic Islets
“About a million” embedded in pancreas
Control centers for blood glucose
Insulin from beta cells
Glucagon from alpha cells
CONTINUE
CONTINUE
 Islets of Langerhans
• Insulin stimulates glucose uptake,
glycogenesis (process of glycogen
synthesis)
• Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis,
glucose release from liver (vs
gluconeogenesis)
• Glycogenolysis… breakdown of glycogen to glucose 1 phosphate.
• Gluconeogenesis… Metabolic pathway that results in generation of
glucose.
Islets of Langerhans
 Feedback Loop

• A rise in blood glucose causes release of insulin

from beta cells the pancreas, promoting
glucose uptake in cells and storage as glycogen
in the liver.

• A fall in blood glucose stimulates alpha cells in

the pancreas to secrete glucagon, which causes
the liver to break down glycogen and release
glucose.
 Gonads
• Ovaries
– Estrogens
– Progesterone
• Testes
– Testosterone
• Reproductive functions when we study reproductive
system.
 Pineal gland
• Melatonin
– ? Inhibits early puberty
– ? Day/night cycles
• Timing of sleep, body temperature, appetite
• Secretes melatonin during darkness
– Participates in setting the body’s clock
• Melatonin is a potent antioxidant
• Melatonin is high when young and is reduced as we age
Pineal gland
 Thymus
• Thymus gland
• Thymopoietins, thymic factor,
thymosins
– Influence development of T lymphocytes
THYMUS
 Non-Endocrine Gland
Hormones
• Stomach (gastrin)
• Small intestine (duodenumintesetinal gastrin,
secretin, cholecystokinin)
• Heart (atrial natriuretic peptide)
• Kidneys (erythropoietin, active vitamin D3)
• Adipose tissue (leptid, resistin)
• Skin
• Placenta (human chorionic gonadotropin, human
placental lactogen, relaxin)
 Functions regulated by the
Endocrine System
• Growth
• Healing
• Water balance & Blood Pressure
• Calcium Metabolism
• Energy Metabolism
• Stress
• Regulation of other Endocrine Organs
 Growth
• Growth hormone-releasing hormone
• Human growth hormone (hGH)
• Thyrotropin (TSH)
• Thyroxine & triiodothyronine
• Calcitonin
• Somatostatin (GHIH)
 Healing
• Growth hormone-releasing hormone
• Human growth hormone (hGH)
• Thyrotropin (TSH)
• Thyroxine & triiodothyronine
• Calcitonin
• Glucagon, Insulin
• Erythropoietin
 Water balance & Blood
pressure
• ADH
• Aldosterone
• Angiotensin II
• Atrial natriuretic H.
• Epinephrine
 Calcium Metabolism
• Calcitonin
• Parathyroid H. (PTH)
• Estrogens/androgens
• Growth hormone
 Energy Metabolism
• Thyroxine & triiodothyronine
• Thyroid-stimulating H. (thyrotropin,
TSH)
• Epinephrine & norepinephrine
• Insulin
• Glucagon
• Adrenocorticotropic H. (ACTH)
• Cortisol
 Stress
• Epinephrine & norepinephrine
• T4 &T3 ??
• ACTH
• Cortisol
1. Thank you for Listening

2. Write any questions

pertaining to this lecture on the
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