Endocrine System | 

- Ductless glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream 

- Hormones act on target cells with specific receptors 
 
1. Steroid hormones | ​lipo-soluble, synthesized from cholesterol 
- Four-ring structure 
a. Enters cell, binds to internal receptor 
b. Hormone-receptor complex enters nucleus 
c. Binds with a DNA control sequence 
d. Affects transcription and translation, alters cell activity 
2. Nonsteroid hormones | ​Proteins, peptides, modified amino acids (amines) 
a. Hormone binds to surface receptor 
b. Internal enzyme activated 
c. Secondary messengers (e. g., cyclic AMP) are activated, which activates or 
deactivates an enzyme 
3. Prostaglandins | ​fatty acids, cause smooth muscle contractions, pain from headaches 
 
 
 
Feedback Mechanisms 
 
Feedback inhibition/Negative feedback | 
- A substance (hormone, reaction product) inhibits the process that produced that 
substance 
 
Metabolism | ​hypothalamus secretes ​thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) 
- Anterior pituitary releases ​thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) 
- Thyroid secretes ​thyroxine ​(contains iodine), which inhibits TRH and TSH 
secretion 
- Low temperature- hypothalamus releases extra TSH 
- Increases oxygen consumption and cellular respiration, releasing heat 
 
Water balance | 
- Hypothalamus detects water concentration via a higher concentration of solutes 
- Stimulates pituitary to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which stimulates kidneys to 
conserve water 
-  
 
 
 
 
 
 
Endocrine Glands 
 
1. Pituitary ​| Controlled by hypothalamus 
- Secretes hormones that act on other endocrine glands 
A. Posterior pituitary | 
- ADH | ​water balance 
- Oxytocin | ​uterus contractions, milk secretion 
B. Anterior pituitary | 
- TSH | ​metabolism 
- Luteinizing hormone (LH) | ​stimulates ovaries, testes, prepares uterus for embryo 
- Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) | ​egg, sperm production 
- Prolactin | ​milk production 
- Growth hormone (GH) | ​cell growth, protein synthesis 
- Adrenocorticotropic stimulating hormone (ACTH) | ​stimulates adrenal cortex to 
release hormones 
- Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) | ​increases melanin production 
 
2. Thyroid | ​Produces thyroxine, which increases metabolism/rate of cellular respiration 
- Hyperthyroidism ​| higher temperature, increased blood pressure, weight loss 
- Hypothyroidism |​ lower metabolic rate, lack of energy, weight gain 
- Calcitonin​ | decreases calcium levels 
 
3. Parathyroids | ​PTH - increases reabsorption of calcium in kidneys and calcium uptake in the 
digestive system 
- Complementary action | ​two hormones have opposite effects (like PTH and calcitonin) 
 
4. Adrenal glands - ​Stress - controls “fight or flight response” 
- Adrenal cortex |​ produces corticosteroids 
- Aldosterone |​ increases reabsorption of Na+ and excretion of K+ 
- Cortisol | ​slows metabolism 
- Adrenal medulla | 
- Epinephrine | ​increases heart rate, blood flow, blood pressure, breathing rate. Air 
passages dilate, glucose is released 
- Norepinephrine |​ does the same thing afaik 
 
5. Pancreas​ - both an exocrine and endocrine gland 
- Exocrine for its digestive system functions 
- Endocrine - Islets of Langerhans 
- Alpha cells secrete ​glucagon 
- Beta cells secrete ​insulin 
- Insulin ​stimulates liver + skeletal muscle to remove glucose from blood. 
Glucose gets stored as glycogen, adipose tissue converts glucose to fat 
(does that make any sense?) 
 - Glucagon​ signals liver and muscle cells to break down glycogen and 
release glucose into blood, and releases fatty acids 
- Diabetes mellitus​ causes high blood pressure, damaging tissues and 
organs - excess glucose is excreted in urine 
- Type I ​(juvenile-onset) is an autoimmune disorder in which little or 
no insulin is made 
- Type II ​(adult-onset) occurs when receptors become unresponsive 
to insulin 
 
6. Reproductive glands 
Ovaries ​produce estrogen which helps with egg development and develops secondary 
sex characteristics, and progesterone which prepares the uterus for implantation of an embryo 
Testes​ produce testosterone which causes secondary sex characteristics and helps 
produce sperm 
 
 
 
Summary of Hormones 
 
Hormone  Gland of origin  Function 

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)  Hypothalamus  Stimulates TSH 

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)  Posterior pituitary  Regulates water balance 

Oxytocin  Posterior pituitary  Uterus contractions, milk secretions 

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)  Anterior pituitary  Stimulates thyroxine 

Luteinizing hormone (LH)  Anterior pituitary  Stimulates ovaries, testes, prepares 

uterus for embryo 

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)  Anterior pituitary  Egg, sperm production 

Prolactin  Anterior pituitary  Milk production 

Growth hormone (GH)  Anterior pituitary  Cell growth, protein synthesis 

Adrenocorticotropic stimulating hormone  Anterior pituitary  Stimulates adrenal cortex to release 

(ACTH)  hormones 

Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)  Anterior pituitary  Increases melanin production 

Thyroxine  Thyroid  Increases metabolism, rate of cellular 

respiration 
Calcitonin  Thyroid  Decreases calcium levels 

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)  Parathyroid  Increases calcium absorption in kidneys, 

uptake of calcium by the digestive system  

Aldosterone  Adrenal cortex  Increases reabsorption of Na+ and 

excretion of K+ 

Cortisol  Adrenal cortex  Slows metabolism 

Epinephrine  Adrenal medulla  Increases heart rate, blood flow, blood 

pressure, breathing rate. Air passages 
dilate, glucose is released 

Norepinephrine  Adrenal medulla  Similar to epinephrine 

Glucagon  Pancreas (α cells)  Signals liver and muscle cells to break 

down glycogen and release glucose into 
blood, and releases fatty acids 

Insulin  Pancreas (β c​ells)  Stimulates liver + skeletal muscle to 

remove glucose from blood.