Endocrine Physiology

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 The endocrine system
➢ The endocrine system is a control
system of ductless glands that secrete H
chemical messengers called hormones.

➢ Hormones are chemical messengers

synthesized by living cells and
Secreted by a specific gland directly R
into the blood stream.

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 Principal functions hormones
1. Regulation of reproduction: gametogenesis, sexual
desire, coitus, fertilization.
2. Regulation of body growth and development.
3. Production, utilization and storage of energy
4. Homeostasis: maintenance of the internal
environment in the body (maintaining the optimum
biochemical environment).
– Water-electrolyte balance (stability of body fluid
composition)
– Regulation of ABP, HR
– Control of BT
– Change in mass of bone, muscle and fat
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Major endocrine glands

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Hypothalamic releasing/inhibiting hormones
(Neurosecretions)
Hypothalamic hormone
Corticotropin releasing hormone
(CRH)
Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)
Growth hormone releasing hormone
(GHRH)
Somatostatin (GHRIH)
Gonadotropin releasing hormone
(GnRH)
Prolactin releasing hormone (PRH)
Prolactin inhibiting hormone
(dopamine)
Effect on pituitary
Stimulates ACTH secretion
Stimulates TSH and Prolactin
secretion
Stimulates GH secretion
Inhibits GH (and other hormone)
secretion
Stimulates LH and FSH secretion
Stimulates PRL secretion
Inhibits PRL secretion
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 Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
• Connected to the hypothalamus by the superior
hypophyseal artery.
• It is hormone producing glandular cells.
• The anterior pituitary produces six peptide hormones:
Prolactin (PRL)
Growth hormone (GH)
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and
Luteinizing hormone (LH).
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 Anterior pituitary hormones
Hormones Functions
GH Promotes growth and metabolism
PRL Promotes milk secretion, breast growth, and
maintains lactation
ACTH Stimulates adrenal cortex to produce
aldosterone and cortisol
TSH Stimulates the thyroid gland to secret T3/T4

LH Promotes ovulation
Stimulates Leydig cells to testosterone
secretion
FSH Stimulates growth and maturation of ova
Stimulates secretion of estrogen
Stimulates spermatogenesis 7
Hormones of the anterior pituitary

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• Effects of GH
• Promotes linear growth of the body, ↑chondrogenesis,
mitogenic
• Metabolic role of GH
On CHO metabolism
↓Glucose utilization
↑Gluconeogenesis ↑BGC (Hyperglycemic hormone)
↑Glycogenolysis
– Has diabetogenic effect
On protein metabolism (protein anabolic)
↑aa transport through the cell membrane
↑DNA transcription
↑RNA translation (protein synthesis)
↓Protein catabolism

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 ...cont’d
On Fat metabolism (Fat catabolic)
↑Lipolysis
↑Ketogenesis
On Electrolytes
↑Absorption of Na+, K+ and Ca2+
Other Roles of GH
↑RBC formation
↑MR, Thermogenic
↑Insulin secretion

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 Abnormalities of GH secretion
A. Hyposecretion (deficiency) of GH
• Results in dwarfism
Clinical features: Rx: hGH
– Stunted growth
– Short stature
– Immature face, small for age
– Physical retardation
– Accelerated aging

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 Gigantism-
o When large quantity of growth

hormone is produced all body tissues

grow rapidly, including the bones

o If the condition occurs before

adolescence, before the epiphyses of

the long bones have become fused
with the shafts, height increases so that
the person becomes a giant, up to 8
12
feet (2.4 m.) tall
 Posterior Pituitary Gland Hormones
o The posterior pituitary do not secrete hormones; they act simply as

a supporting structure for large numbers of terminal nerve fibers

originate in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the
hypothalamus
o Posterior pituitary hormones are synthesized by cell bodies in
the hypothalamus
o The hormones are then transported in the axoplasm of the
neurons’ nerve fibers passing from the hypothalamus to the
posterior pituitary gland
o Antidiuretic hormone and Oxytocin are posterior pituitary
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hormones
 Function of Oxytocin
• Induces uterus contraction (Labor)
• Induces myoepithelial contraction (lactation)
• Acts as a NT in the memory and pain
• Facilitates ovulation
• Facilitates transport of sperm in both males and females ductile
system
Regulation of OT secretion
1. Tactile stimulation of the nipple (suckling)
2. Genital stimulation, coitus
3. Estrogen increases sensitivity of target cells to OT
4. Fear, pain, adrenalin and alcohol inhibit OT secretion

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Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), Vasopressin
Function:
• Promotes reabsorption of water in the renal tubules
• Vasoconstriction of arteries and arterioles
• Regulates osmolality and volume of ECF
Factors stimulating release of ADH
• Hyperosmolality
• Change in blood volume
Disorders of ADH secretion
Hypo secretion of ADH: Diabetes inspidus (DI)
Manifestation: Polyurea and polydipsia
Types: i. Central DI
ii. Nephrogenic DI

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 Thyroid Gland
• It is the largest endocrine gland
• Contains special cells called thyroid follicular cells that secrete
T3/T4
• There are also cells called Parafollicular cells producing
calcitonin
Special functions of thyroid follicles
• Can concentrate I-
• Synthsize thyroglobulin
• Release T3/T4

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 Function of the thyroid hormones
1. Calorigenic action
▪ ↑O2 consumption (↑oxidative metabolism)
▪ ↑Metabolic rate = Thermogenic
▪
2. Body growth: promotes growth of bone, teeth and nerve tissue in
children
▪ ↓T3/T4 = Cretinism, dwarfism plus mental retardation,
3. Effect on NS
▪ Promotes growth and maturation of nerve tissue
▪ Promote normal synaptic development
▪ Essential for normal function of the brain

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 Function of the thyroid hormones (cont’d)

4. Metabolic function

On CHO metabolism On protein metabolism

↑Glycogenolysis ↑Protein synthesis

↑Gluconeogenesis ↑ ↑T3/T4 = Protein catabolism

↑Glucose utilization On Fat metabolism

↑Glucose absorption ↑Lipolysis

5. Effect on CNS: causes mental alertness. Hyper secretion leads to

nervousness

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 Parathyroid Glands
➢ Parathyroid hormone (PTH) regulates the homeostasis of calcium,
magnesium, and phosphate by increasing blood calcium and
magnesium levels and decreasing blood phosphate level.

➢ PTH secretion is controlled by the level of calcium in the blood.

➢ Target organs: Bone, renal tubules and GIT

➢ Regulation of PTH secretion:

↓↓ [Ca2+] = ↑PTH secretion

↑↑[Ca2+] = ↓PTH

❖ Calcitonin(Produced by Para follicular cells in the thyroid gland)

Action: it is a hypocalcemic hormone (↓Ca level) 19

 Adrenal Glands
➢ The adrenal glands are located above the kidneys.
They consist of an outer cortex and inner medulla.
❖ The adrenal cortex is divided into three zones:
✓ The outer zone secretes mineralocorticoids;
✓ The middle zone secretes glucocorticoids; and
✓ The inner zone secretes androgens.
1. Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone) increase
sodium and water reabsorption and decrease potassium reabsorption.
2. Glucocorticoids (mainly cortisol) promote normal metabolism, help
resist stress, and decrease inflammation.
✓ Secretion is controlled by ACTH.
3. Androgens secreted by the adrenal cortex stimulate growth of axillary and
pubic hair, and contribute to libido.
❖ The adrenal medullae secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine (NE),
which are released under stress. 20
 Aldosterone
Function
• ↑Na+ reabsorption Renal tubuled
• ↑K+ and H+ secretion Sweat and salivary ducts
• ↑Aldosterone = ↑Na+ = ↑Osmolality = ↑ADH
Regulation of aldosterone secretion
• Four important factors controlling aldosterone secretion
1. Hyponatrimia (↓Na+) 3. ACTH from adenohypophysis
2. Hyperkalemia (↑K+) 4. Angiotensin II

↑Aldosterone 21
 Physiologic effects of cortisol
It is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands in response to stress.
1. Metabolic Effects
On CHO metabolism
• ↑Gluconeogenesis ↑BGC
• ↓Glucose utilization = Hyperglycemia
On Protein metabolism Fat metabolism
• ↓Protein synthesis ↑Lipolysis
• ↓Amino acid uptake ↑Mobilization of fat and
• ↑Protein catabolism redeposition on unusaul areas

2. Anti-inflammatory action: It suppresses inflammatory reactions

• Stabilizes lysosomal membrane
• Inhibits formation of inflammatory mediators
• Decreases capillary permeability
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 Pancreas
➢ The pancreas lies in the curve of the duodenum. It has both
endocrine and exocrine functions.

➢ The endocrine portion consists of pancreatic islets or islets

of Langerhans, which are made up of alpha and beta cells.

➢ Alpha cells secrete glucagon and beta cells secrete insulin.

➢ Glucagon increases blood glucose level, and insulin

decreases blood glucose level.

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 Function of insulin
Insulin molecule contains 51 aa residue, MW, 6000
It exists in two chains, A-chain, 21 aas, and B-chain 30 aas
Two chains joined by disulfide bridge
Function
1. Metabolic action
On CHO metabolism
↑Transport and utilization of glucose in many cells with
exceptions (brain tissue, hepatocytes, intestinal epith. Cells,
renal epith.
↑Glycogenesis On Protein metabolism
↓Glycogenolysis - ↑AA transport
↓Gluconeogenesis - ↑Protein synthesis
On Fat: -↑ Lipogenesis -↓Protein catabolism
-↓Lipolysis
2. Promotes body growth
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Glucagon
• A peptide made up of 29 amino acids
• Produced by pancreatic α-cells
Function
1. Metabolic function
On CHO metabolism
↑Glycogenolysis ↑BGC
↑Gluconeogenesis
On Lipid metabolism
↑Lipolysis
↑Ketogenesis
On Protein: ↑protein catabolism
2. Function on heart
↑Myocardial contractility
↑HR
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