CHAPTER FOUR

MMORY AND FORGETTING

By: Zelalem Wondimu

School of Psychology
Addis Ababa University
Introduction
Learning and memory
 Often describe roughly the same processes
 The former is initial acquisition or encoding of
information,
 The latter more often refers to later storage and
retrieval of information
 4.1. Memory
 4.1.1 Meaning and Processes of Memory
 Retention of information/what is learned earlier
over time.

Processes of Memory
a) Encoding
 Refers to the form (i.e. the code) in which an item of
information is to be placed in memory.
b) Storage:
 It is the location in memory system in which material is
saved.
c) Retrieval
 Material in memory storage is located, brought into
awareness and used.
 Memory is the process by which information is encoded
(phase1), stored (phase 2) and later retrieved (phase 3).
4.1.2 Stages/Structure of Memory
 How information is represented in memory and
how long it lasts and how it is organized.
 Models of memory is based on how the computer
works (takes in information, transforming the
information into an electronic language, and storing
information on disk),
 Models of memory based on this idea are
Information processing theories.
 Like computer, we also store vast amounts of
information in our memory storehouse.
 Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), developed memory
three structures of memory
1. Sensory Memory/Sensory Register
 It is the entry way to memory.

 visual images (Iconic memory) remain in the visual

system for a maximum of one second.
 Auditory images (Echoic memory) remain in the
auditory system up to two second.
 Information briefly held in the sensory memory
simply decays from the register.
 Information that has got attention and recognition
pass on short-term memory for further processing.
2) Short-term Memory (working memory, immediate memory,
active memory, and primary memory)
 Consists of the by-products or end results of perceptual analysis.

Characteristics of Short-term Memory

It is active
 workspace to process new information and to call up relevant
information from LTM.
Rapid accessibility
 Information in STM is readily available for use.

Preserves the temporal sequence of information

 Maintain the information in sequential manner for a temporary
period of time until it goes to further analysis and stored in LTM in
meaningful way.
Limited capacity
 George Miller (1956) estimated the capacity of STM to be seven
plus or minus 2.
 Strategies to hold information in short-term
memory
a. Rehearsal: maintenance and elaborative

b. Chunking: the grouping or packing of information

into higher order units that can be remembered as
single units.
3. Long Term Memory
 Used for relatively permanent storage of meaningful information for
longer period.
Subsystems
a. Declarative/ explicit memory
 The conscious recollection of specific facts or events that can be verbally
communicated.
i. Semantic memory: internal representations of the world, independent of
any particular context.
ii. Episodic memories: memories for events and situations from personal
experience.
b. Non-declarative/ implicit memory
 Behavior is affected by prior experience.

 One of the most important kinds of implicit memory is procedural

memory.
 It’s knowledge of procedures or skills.

 How to comb your hair, use a pencil, drive or swim

Serial Position Effect
 The three structures of memory requires to explain the
serial position effect.
 Retention of any particular item will depend on its
position in the list.
 Recall will be best for items at the beginning of the list
(the primacy effect) and at the end of the list (the recency
effect).
 The result will be a U-shaped curve.

 Primacy effect: short-term memory is relatively empty

when the information is entered and processed to make
into long-term memory.
 Recency effect: At the time of recall, they are still sitting
in STM.
4.1.3 Factors Affecting Memory
a. Ability to retain

b. Good health

c. Age of the learner

d. Maturity

e. Will to remember

f. Intelligence

g. Interest

h. Over learning

i. Speed of learning

j. Meaningfulness of the material

k. Sleep or rest
4.2 Forgetting
4.2.1 Meaning and Concepts of Forgetting
 The apparent loss of information already encoded and
stored in the long-term memory.
 German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus.

 He memorized lists meaningless (nonsense) sets of two

consonants with a vowel in between (FIW, BOZ).
 The most rapid forgetting occurs in the first hours, and
particularly in the first hour.
 After nine hours, the rate of forgetting slows and
declines little, even after the passage of many days.
 Relearning of previously mastered material is almost
always faster than starting from a scratch
4.2.2. Theories of Forgetting
4.2.2.1.The Decay Theory
 Memory traces or engram fade with time if they are not
accessed now and then.
 The trace simply fades away because of the passage of time.

4.2.2.2. Interference
 Proactive Interference: information learned earlier
interferes with recall of newer material.
 Retroactive Interference: new information interferes with
the ability to remember old information
4.2.2.3. New Memory for Old/ Displacement Theory
 New information entering memory can wipe out old
information
 Mostly associated with the STM (limited capacity).
5.2.2.4. Motivated Forgetting
 Blocking from consciousness those memories that
are too threatening or painful through self-
protective process repression.
4.2.2.5. Cue Dependent Forgetting
 Lack of retrieval aids from long-term memory.

 Mental or physical state may also act as a retrieval

cue.
4.3. Improving Memory
 Pay Attention: encode the information

 Encode information in more than one way:

elaborate the encoding
 Add meaning: linking new information with the old

 Take your time: minimize interference by using

study breaks for rest or recreation
 Over learn: Studying information even after you
think you already know it.
 Monitor your learning: rehearsing and testing.