Memory 11/15/2017 5:21:00 AM

 What is Memory?
 Memory is an active system that receives information from the senses,
organizes and alters it as it stores it away, and then retrieves the
information from storage.
 What are the Processes of Memory?
 ENCODING: The process by which the memory system gets the
sensory information into a form that the brain can use is called
encoding. It is a set of mental operations that people perform on
sensory information to convert that information into a form that is
usable in the brain’s storage system.
 STORAGE: The process by which information is held on to for some
period of time is called storage. The duration varies with the stages of
memory.
 RETRIEVAL: Retrieval is the process by which the stored information is
‘brought back’ from the storage in the form it is supposed to be used
in.
What are the various Models of Memory?
 INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL
This model of memory assumes that the processing of information for
memory storage is similar to the way in which a computer processes
memories in a series of three stages: encoding, storage and retrieval.
 LEVELS OF PROCESSING MODEL
This model of memory assumes information that is more ‘deeply
processed’ or processed according to its meaning rather than just the
sound or physical characteristics of the word or words, will be
remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time. For eg:
The word BALL would be remembered better if it were associated with,
say, a sentence, or what it is used for than if it were merely flashed in
front of a subject.
 PARALLEL DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING
In this model of memory, memory processes are proposed to take
place at the same time over a large network of neural connections.
This allows people to retrieve many different aspects of a memory all
at once, allowing much faster reactions and decisions.
What are the Three Stages of Memory according to Information
Processing Model?
The three stages of memory are: Sensory memory, Short Term Memory,
and Long Term Memory.

What is the Sensory Memory?

 Sensory memory is the first stage of memory, the point at which
information enters the nervous system through the sensory system.
For e.g.: While driving along a road, you may pass a man in a unicorn
suit. The only reason why you would turn around to catch another
glimpse of him is because his appearance was noted by your sensory
memory. The two types of sensory memory are:
 ICONIC SENSORY MEMORY: It refers to the visual sensory memory
and lasts for a fraction of a second only.
o Its capacity is everything that can be seen at one time.
o The process by which information that has entered the iconic
memory is pushed over by new information is called masking.
o Eidetic memory is the ability to access visual memory over a
long period of time (more than 30 seconds). Memory is
‘photographic’.
o The functions of Iconic memory are- (a) It helps visual system to
view the surroundings as continuous despite saccadic
movements. (b) It allows enough time for the brain stem to
decide whether information is important enough to be brought to
consciousness or not.
o For e.g.: The iconic memory causes you to take a ‘double take’
when you notice something unusual, like a man in a unicorn suit.
 ECHOIC SENSORY MEMORY: It refers to the audio sensory memory. It
is the brief memory of something that a person has heard.
o It lasts for about 2-4 seconds.
o Its capacity is smaller than that of iconic memory.
o Our brain asks ‘What?’ when it hears something. This is called
the what phenomena.
o The functions of Echoic memory are- (a) It allows a person to
remember what another person has said long enough to catch
the meaning of the phrase. (b) It allows enough time for the
brain stem to decide whether information is important enough to
be brought to consciousness or not.
What is Short Term Memory?
 Information is held in the short term memory stage for a brief period
of time while it is being used. For example, the name of a person that
you just met stays within your short term memory, such that you are
able to recall it immediately. However, if you do not actively memorize
their name, you forget it after a short duration.
 Information moves from sensory memory to short term memory
through the process of selective attention. Selective Attention is the
ability to focus on only one stimulus among all sensory input.
 The cocktail party effect is a phenomena by virtue of which a person
selectively perceives and pays attention to a single thing (say,
someone calling out their name) among a series of chaotic stimuli
(say, the chatter at a cocktail party).
 Short term memory tends to be encoded in auditory form, although
sometimes images are stored in short term memory in a kind of ‘visual
sketchpad’.
 Short term memory is also known as working memory. It can be
compared to a working desk, where files that are currently being
worked on are on the desk. Files that are not used move away from
the desk, while files that need to be saved for future requirements are
shelved in the long term memory.
 Through George Miller’s digit-span test, it was found that people can
remember 5-9 digits with ease. To remember larger groups, chunking
is required. Chunking is the process by which bits of information are
combined into meaningful units, or chunks, so that more information
can be stored in one go.
 Without rehearsal, information lasts for 15-30 seconds in the working
memory.
 Rehearsal in the short term memory generally involves repeating
information over and over again, i.e. maintenance rehearsal.
 Information is lost due to decay, interference during maintenance
rehearsal, or overdoing of the capacity of short term memory.
What is Long Term Memory?
The Long Term Memory is the memory system into which all the
information is placed to be kept more or less permanently. Its capacity is
limitless. For example, a person still remembers nursery rhymes because
they have been stored in their long term memory.
 There is a physical change in the brain when a long term memory is
formed.
 It is relatively well organized.
 Duration of memories is endless. However, it may happen that some
memories end up being available, but not accessible.
 Information in long term memory may be stored through maintenance
rehearsal or rote learning. However, the best way to encode
information into this system in an organized fashion is to make it
meaningful through elaborate rehearsal. Elaborate Rehearsal is a
method of transferring information from short term memory to long
term memory by making that information meaningful in some manner.
 It can be compared to a huge series of filing cabinets.
 Although many long term memories are encoded as images, sounds,
smells and tastes, in general it is encoded in meaningful form, a kind
of mental storehouse of the meanings of words, concepts and events.
 According to Collins and Quillian, information in the long term memory
is stored in a semantic network model. It is a model of memory
organization that assumes information is stored in the brain in a
connected fashion, with concepts that are related stored physically
close to each other than concepts that are not highly related.
What are the different Types of Long Term Memories?
 PROCEDURAL (NON-DECLARATIVE) LTM
It is a type of long term memory that includes memory for skills,
procedures, habits, and conditioned responses. These memories are
not conscious but are implied to exist because they affect conscious
behavior. For e.g., knowing how to tie one’s shoelaces etc. These
memories are acquired by paying attention and learning. These are
 also known as implicit memories because memory for these skills,
habits and learned reflexes is not easily retrieved into conscious
awareness. For instance, if a person were to be asked to explain how
they tie their laces, they might not be able to explain it immediately.
 DECLARATIVE LTM
It is a type of long term memory that contains information that is
conscious and known. There are two types of declarative memories-
(a) semantic and (b) episodic.
o Semantic Memory: It is the general knowledge that one acquires
through school or through reading. These memories are
relatively permanent and stable. They are related to universal
things. Fro instance, one may remember that the mitochondria is
the powerhouse of the cell because of their biology lessons.
o Episodic Memory: It is a type of declarative memory that
contains personal information not readily available to others,
such as daily activities and events. For instance, a person may
be frightened of dogs because of a childhood experience.
Both semantic and episodic memories are forms of explicit memory,
i.e. memories that are easily made conscious and brought from long
term memory storage to short term memory.
How does Retrieval from Long Term Memory occur?
 Retrieval from the long term memory occurs depending on the cues
used to recall it. The more the number of cues associated with a
memory, the better and easier its retrieval. Encoding specificity is the
tendency for memory of information to be improved if related
information (such as surroundings or physiological state) available
when the memory is first formed is also available when it is being
retrieved. Broadly speaking, retrieval can occur through recall or
recognition.
 In recognition, a piece of information or stimulus is matched with an
existing memory. For instance, a word search in which a list of words
is given and must be found in the grid is an example of recognition.
 In recall, memories are retrieved with little or no memory cues. For
example, answering questions in a fill-in-the-blanks test. Recall is
affected by-
o Serial position effect: the tendency of information at the
beginning and at the end to be remembered more accurately
than the information in the middle of the body.
 o Primacy effect: the tendency to remember initial information in a
body of information better because one paid more attention to it.
o Recency effect: the tendency to remember final information in a
body of information better because it is ‘fresher’ in the memory.
 Retrieval failure or tip-of-the-tongue phenomena refers to the inability
to recall a word or sound that one is almost able to remember. This
occurs because the long term memory is unable to pull the memory
into the auditory recorder of short term memory; i.e. it is not fully
retrieved. This phenomena can be overcome by ‘forgetting’ the thing
for some time. The mind unconsciously works on its retrieval.
What is forgetting? Why does it occur?

 The Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve is a graph that shows the distinct

pattern in which forgetting occurs. The pace of forgetting something is
fast within the first hour after learning and then tapers off gradually.
There are multiple reasons because of which a person may forget
memories. Some of these include-
o ENCODING FAILURE: It is the failure to process information into
memory. For instance, a person may have called out another’s
name, but the second person might not respond because they
did not register the sound.
o MEMORY DECAY THEORY: According to this theory, a memory
trace is a physical change in the brain that occurs when a
memory is formed. This trace may get decayed or may even be
lost with the passage of time, if the memory is not used.
o INTERFERENCE THEORY: According to this theory, interference
may occur, which could lead to the loss of a memory. This
interference could be of two types- proactive and retroactive.
o Proactive interference: In this for of interference,
memories can not be retrieved because older information
prevents or interferes with the retrieval of newer
information. For example, when someone asks for your
number after you have recently changed it, you may find
yourself giving them your older number accidentally.
o Retroactive interference: In this for of interference,
memories can not be retrieved because newer information
prevents or interferes with the retrieval of older
information. For example, if someone who learnt how to
drive in India, drives on the right side in America, they
might find themselves driving on the right in India as well
(even though they are supposed to drive on the left).
Problem Solving 11/15/2017 5:21:00 AM

`What is thinking?
Thinking is a broader term for cognition. It is a mental activity that goes
on in the brain when a person is organizing and attempting to understand
information and communicating that information to others.
What is Problem Solving?
Problem solving is a cognition process that occurs when a goal must be
reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways.
What are the various Methods of Problem Solving?
The various methods of problem solving include-
o TRIAL AND ERROR METHOD
This is also known as mechanical solution. In this method, one
possible solution after the other is tried until a successful one is
found. For example, trying multiple keys to open a lock.
o ALGORITHMS
Algorithms are specific, step-by-step procedures for solving
certain types of problems. They result in correct solutions
(provided that a correct solution actually exists) but take a lot of
time in doing so. This is not always practical. For example,
solving a Rubik’s cube.
o HEURISTICS
Heuristics, or Rule-of-Thumb, is a simple rule that can be applied
to multiple situations. Unlike algorithms, it is very general. It is
an educated guess based on prior experience that helps narrow
down the possible solutions for a problem. It does not always
lead to the correct solution. This method is helpful if you work
backwards. For example: One may classify a device with a black
screen and multiple buttons as an electronic gadget.
Representative heuristics: It helps in categorizing things on
the basis of physical and functional parameters. For e.g.:
Classifying an object as an electronic device because it has a
black screen.
o MEANS END ANALYSIS
Means end analysis is a type of heuristics in which the difference
between the starting situation and the goal is determined and
steps are taken to reduce that difference. For example, while
making a DIY project, one tries to reduce the steps between the
original supplies, and the end product.
What are the Problems with Problem Solving?
 FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS
It is a block to problem solving abilities that comes from thinking about
objects in terms of their typical functions only. For example: using a
coin to tighten a screw.
 MENTAL SETS
It is the tendency of people to persist using the same problem solving
patterns that have worked for them in the past.
 CONFIRMATION BIAS
It is the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while
ignoring any evidence that does not fit into those beliefs. For example:
People trust astrology even though it has been contradicted many
times.
Emotions 11/15/2017 5:21:00 AM

What are Emotions?

‘Emotions are the ‘feeling’ aspect of consciousness, characterized by a
certain physical arousal, a certain behavior that reveals the emotion to
the outside world, and an inner awareness of feelings.’
Emotions are subjective reactions experienced as a result of psycho-
physiological arousal. They result from interaction of-
 Perception of environmental stimuli,
 Neural and hormonal responses to perceptions,
 Cognitive appraisal of the situation.
Emotions are largely a conscious phenomena. They involve more bodily
manifestations than other conscious states. Emotions vary on a number of
dimensions, such as intensity, type, value, self-regulation, arousal, origin,
etc. Emotions have a central role to play in moral education and moral
life. Moral emotions such as conscience, empathy, shame, guilt, etc. are
inextricably linked to moral virtues.
What are the Values of Emotions?
 They prepare us for action
 They shape our behavior and are reinforcing
 They regulate social interaction
 They facilitate communication non-verbally
 The facilitate adult-child relations. Thus, they influence development
 They add value to experience
 They help respond flexibly to the environment.
What are the three elements of emotions?
o PHYSIOLOGY OF EMOTIONS
Different emotions are manifested through different bodily reactions.
However, it may be difficult to distinguish between emotions on the
basis of outward bodily reactions alone. Anger and fear, for instance,
bring about similar reactions (however, body temperature decreases
when a person is afraid, and increases when a person is angry).
Further, emotions work differently depending on the side of the brain
involved. The facial manifestation of emotions is governed by the
Amygdala. It also helps in interpreting another person’s emotions.
 BEHAVIOR OF EMOTIONS
People behave in certain ways when they are under the grip of an
emotion. They fight, run, kiss, and yell, along with countless other
actions, when under the influence of an emotion. They express their
emotions through facial expressions as well. Facial expressions tend to
 vary across cultures, however, some of them remain relatively
universal. The seven facial expressions that are consistently recognized
are: anger, fear, disgust, happiness, sadness, surprise and contempt.
According to Charles Darwin, facial expression of emotion was an aid
to survival because it enabled people to communicate their internal
states and react to emergencies before they developed them.
Emotions, thus are mostly genetically inherited and are characteristic
to the entire human species. Display rules govern the extent to which
these emotions are portrayed. They are learned ways of controlling
displays of emotion in social settings.
 LABELING OF EMOTIONS
The third component of emotion is interpreting the subjective feeling
by giving it a label: anger, fear, disgust, happiness and so on. The
labeling process is a matter of retrieving memories of previous similar
experiences, perceiving the context of the emotion, and coming up
with a solution- a label. It is thus also known as the cognitive
component. The label a person applies to a subjective feeling is in part
a learned response influenced by that person’s language and culture.
What is the Common Sense Theory of Emotion?
In the common sense theory of emotion, a stimulus leads to an emotion,
which then leads to a bodily arousal. For instance, a snarling dog may
lead to an emotion of fear, which may in turn lead to trembling with fear.

Perception  Emotions  Physiological Reactions

What is the James-Lange Theory of Emotion?

According to James-Lange theory of emotion, a stimulus leads to bodily
arousal first, which is then interpreted as an emotion. The automatic
response precedes the emotion and causes subjective emotional
experiences. This theory requires separate and distinct physiological
activity for each emotion, as emotion becomes conscious when the brain
observes bodily responses and each emotion is caused by recognizing a
different and specific pattern of bodily activity.

Perception  Physiological Reactions  Emotions

Criticism: Cannon Bard offered the following criticism to this theory-

 Physiological experience of emotions does not appear to differ to the
extent that it would be essential to discriminate one emotion from
other based on bodily reaction only. Interpretations of physiological
aspects differ for different people.
 At times, Physiological aspect of emotions overshadows subjective
experience of feelings.
 Physiological responses that are artificially created do not result in
emotions.
What is the Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion?
According to the Cannon-Bard theory, both physiological reaction and the
emotion are assumed to occur at the same time. Thus, a stimulus leads to
an activity in the brain, which then sends signals to arouse the body and
interpret the emotion at the same time.

Event  Subcortical  physiological change (occur

Perception Brain Activity  Emotions simultaneously)

Criticism: The following critiques of the theory have been proposed-

 Cannon and Bard assumed that bodily responses have no influence on
emotions, but studies have shown otherwise.
 Cannon and Bard used experiments done on animals as well as case
studies as evidences for their theory. These can be unreliable and it is
often doubtful whether the findings cane be generalized to human
behavior or not.
What is the Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion/ Cognitive Arousal
Theory?
According to the cognitive arousal theory of emotion, both the physical
arousal and the labeling of that arousal based on cues from the
environment must occur before the emotion is experienced. Thus, a
stimulus leads to a bodily arousal and the labeling of that arousal (based
on the surrounding context), which leads to the experience and labeling
of the emotional reaction. This theory focuses on the role of physiological
arousal as a primary factor in emotions. However, it also suggests that
physical arousal alone cannot be responsible for all the emotional
responses. Therefore, it takes into account the cognitive aspect of
emotional reactions.

 Cognitive appraisal
Perception  Emotion
 Physiological change

What is Facial Feedback Hypothesis?

It is a theory of emotion that assumes that facial expressions provide
feedback to the brain concerning the emotion being expressed, which in
turn causes and intensifies the emotion.

Perception  Arousal in Face  Facial Expression  Cognitive

interpretation  Emotion

What is the Cognitive-Mediational Theory (given by Lazarus)?

According to the cognitive-mediational theory, a stimulus must be
interpreted (appraised) by a person in order to result in a physical
response and an emotional reaction. Thus, the stimulus causes an
immediate appraisal which results in an emotional response, which is then
followed by the appropriate bodily response. However, this theory is
criticized as some researchers believe that emotional reactions to
situations are so fast that they are almost instantaneous, which would
leave little time for appraisal to occur first.

Perception  Appraisal of Threat  Emotion  Bodily response

What do you mean by Emotional Understanding?

Emotional understanding involves-
 Awareness of one’s own emotional state
 Ability to discern others’ emotional state
 Ability to appropriately use emotional vocabulary.
What do you mean by emotional regulation and management?
Emotional regulation and management involves-
 Coping with both pleasure as well as aversive/distressing emotions.
 Regulating the situations that elicit extreme emotions.
 Ability to use experience to strategically organize emotions
Personality 11/15/2017 5:21:00 AM

What is Personality?
Personality is the unique and relatively stable way in which each
individual thinks, acts, and feels throughout life. It should not be confused
with character, which refers to the value judgments of a person’s moral
and ethic behavior. It should not be confused with temperament either,
which refers to the enduring characteristics with which each person is
born.
What are the four main Perspectives in Personality Theory?
 PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSEPECTIVE
It focuses on the role of the unconscious mind in the development of
personality. This personality is heavily focused on biological causes of
personality differences.
 HUMANISTIC PERSEPECTIVE
It arose as a reaction to psychoanalytical and behavioristic approach.
It focuses on the role of each person’s conscious life experiences and
choices in personality development.
 TRAIT PERSEPECTIVE
Trait theorists are more concerned with the characteristics of a
personality. Although some trait theorists believe that traits are
biologically determined, others hold no opinions on the same.
 TYPE PERSEPECTIVE
The observed behavior patterns are arranged in types and people are
judged on the basis of those behavioral characteristics or patterns.
Elaborate on Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytical Theory of Personality.
Freud perceived personality to be similar to an iceberg. The part of the
iceberg visible just above the surface is the conscious mind. Just below
the surface is the preconscious mind, everything that is not yet part of
the conscious mind. Hidden deep below the surface is the unconscious
mind, feelings, memories, emotions, thoughts and urges that cannot be
easily brought into consciousness. While two of the three parts of the
personality (ego and superego) exist at all three levels of awareness, the
id is completely in the unconscious mind.
THE DIVISIONS OF THE MIND
Freud’s theory divided the mind into the following three levels:
 Preconscious mind: It is the level of the mind in which information is
available but not currently conscious.
 Conscious mind: It is the level of the mind that is aware of immediate
surroundings and perceptions.
 Unconscious mind: It is the level of the mind in which thoughts,
feelings, memories, and other information are kept that are not easily
or voluntarily brought into consciousness.
THE DIVISIONS OF THE PERSONALITY
Freud divided the personality into three parts:
 Id: Id is a completely unconscious, amoral part of the personality that
exists at birth, containing all of the biological desires. It is governed by
the need for satisfaction or the pleasure principle. According to the
pleasure principle, the immediate satisfaction of needs without regard
for the consequences is sought.
 Ego: Ego is the part of the personality that develops out of a need to
deal with reality, mostly unconscious, rational and logical. It works on
 the reality principle, by which the demands of the id are satisfied only
when there are no negative consequences. It is driven by the motto-
“if it feels good, do it, but only if you can get away with it.”
 Superego: Superego is the part of the personality that acts as the
moral center. There are two parts of the superego- ego ideal and
conscience. Ego ideal contains the standards for moral behavior. All
behavior is held up to this standard and judged by the conscience. The
conscience produces pride or guilt, depending on how well behavior
matches or does not match with the ego ideal.
Together, the id makes demands, the superego puts restrictions on how
those demands can be met, and the ego has to come up with a plan that
will quiet the id but satisfy the superego.
STAGES OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT/ PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
According to Freud, the three parts of personality develop over a series of
stages. He believed that the stages were determined by the developing
sexuality of the child. At each stage, a different erogenous zone, or an
area of the body that produces pleasure feelings, becomes important and
can become the source of conflicts. If the conflicts are not fully resolved,
then it can lead to fixation. Fixation is a disorder in which the person does
not fully resolve the conflict in a particular psychosexual stage, thus
resulting in personality traits and behavior associated with that earlier
stage.
Since Freud believed that personality develops as a result of sexual
development, the stages are also known as psychosexual stages of
personality development. The stages are as follows:
 ORAL STAGE
o Occurs from zero to two years.
o Erogenous zone is the mouth.
o Weaning is the primary conflict.
o In case oral needs are overindulged, the personality tends to be
dependent; optimistic; excessive in drinking, eating, talking etc.
o In case oral needs are underindulged, the personality tends to be
too aggressive or pessimistic.
 ANAL STAGE
o Occurs from two to five years of age.
o Erogenous zone is the anus.
o Toilet training is the source of conflict.
 o In case of overindulgence, personality becomes anal expulsive.
This is characterized by sloppiness, messiness, destructive and
hostile tendencies.
o In case of underindulgence, personality becomes anal retentive.
It is characterized by stubbornness, stinginess and excessive
neatness.
 PHALLIC STAGE
o Occurs from three to six years old.
o Erogenous zone are the genitals.
o Children start to become sexually attracted to their parent and
view the parent of the same sex as their ‘competitor’ for the
affection of the other parent.
o Girls go through the Electra complex, where their first sexual
attraction is towards their father. Further, he believed that girls
could feel like they are missing out on something and go through
‘penis envy’.
o Boys go through the Oedipus complex, where their first sexual
attraction is towards their mother. They feel jealousy towards
their father.
o The stage is overcome when identification occurs. The sexual
feelings are repressed and the child starts to identify with the
parent of the same sex.
o Fixation in this stage involves immature sexual attitudes as an
adult. They may exhibit promiscuous sexual behavior and be
very vain. Boys become ‘mama’s boys’ while girls look for older
father figures to marry.
 LATENCY STAGE
o Occurs during school years, that is from six to twelve years.
o Children push sexual feelings for the other sex into their
unconscious. They grow intellectually, physically, socially, but
not sexually, in this stage. They tend to think that the other sex
is pretty awful.
o Focus of pleasure are social skills.
o Focus of conflicts are school, play, same-sex friendships.
o Fixation may lead to difficulty in getting along with others.
 GENITAL STAGE
o Occurs when puberty begins, around twelve to adulthood.
 o Focus of pleasure is sexual pleasure with people beyond the
parents.
o Focus of conflict is sexual relationship with their partner.
o Fixation may either result in immature love or indiscriminate
hate; or uncontrollable working or inability to work.
CRITICISMS
 Horney was critical of the term ‘penis envy’ and proposed ‘womb envy’,
according to which men felt the need to compensate for their lack of
child-bearing ability by striving for success in other areas.
 Erikson, for instance, focused more on the importance of social
relationships at every stage of life.
 Jung said that there is a collective unconscious instead of a personal
one.
 What if family life is abusive?
 What if one of the parent dies.
 What if the parents are homosexual?
 Lack of scientific testing
 Overlooked female perspective
 Atypical samples (case studies)
Elaborate on the Humanistic View of Personality.
The humanistic approach to personality focuses on those aspects that
make people uniquely human, such as subjective emotions and the
freedom to choose one’s own destiny. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
were the major psychologists who contributed to the humanistic
approach.
They gave a new way of approaching human nature and condition,
offered an expanded horizon of methods of enquiry in the study of human
behavior, and gave more effective methods in the professional practice of
psychotherapy.
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Maslow proposed that human beings must fulfill the more basic needs,
such as physical and security needs, before being able to fulfill the higher
need of self-actualization.
Self actualization is the point that is seldom reached at which people have
sufficiently satisfied the lower needs and achieved their full human
potential.
Criticism
 Maslow did not take clinical psychological environments into
consideration while proposing the theory.
 It is possible for people to reach self actualization without following the
hierarchy.
CARL ROGER’S SELF CONCEPT
Rogers believed that humans are striving to fulfill their innate capacities
and capabilities and to become everything that their genetic potential will
allow them to be. This striving for fulfillment of one’s innate capacities
and capabilities is known as self-actualizing tendency. An important tool
to achieve the same is the self-concept, that is the image of oneself that
develops from interactions with important, significant people in ones life.
A person’s real self is one’s perceptions of ones actual characteristics,
traits, and abilities. A person strives to achieve their ideal self, that is
one’s perception of whom one should be and what one would be like.
If there is an overlap between the real and ideal self, then a person is in
harmony. However, deep mismatch between the real and the ideal self
can lead to anxiety. Primarily, the agreement between the real and ideal
selves depends on how the important people in a person’s life react to
them.
Rogers defined positive regard as warmth, affection, love, and respect
that come from the significant others in people’s experience. Positive
regard is vital to people’s ability to cope with stress and to strive to
achieve self-actualization. It can be of two types-
 Conditional positive regard- Regard that is given only when the person
is doing what the provider wants he/she to do.
 Unconditional positive regard- Regard that is given without conditions
or strings attached.
According to Rogers, a person who is in the process of self-actualizing,
actively exploring potentials and abilities and experiencing a match
between real and ideal selves, is a fully functioning person.
What are the Trait Theories/ Psychometric Theories of Personality?
Trait theories endeavor to describe the characteristics that make up
human personality in an effort to predict future behavior. A trait is a
consistent, enduring way of thinking, feeling, or behaving, and trait
theorists attempt to describe personality in terms of a person’s traits.
 EYSENCK’S TRAIT THEORY
Eysenck focused on specific traits and assessed people on the basis of
the degrees to which the traits were present/absent in people. He gave
two dimensions to personality, both of which were biologically/
genetically based. Later, he included a third dimension. They
subsumed 32 personality traits. The dimensions were-
o Extraversion vs. Introversion: The degree to which people are
socially outgoing or socially withdrawn. On one end are people
who are outgoing, social, active and on the other, people who
are shy, passive, cautious.
o Neuroticism vs. Emotional Stability: The degree to which people
have control over their feelings. On one end, people who are
tense, anxious, restless, and on the other end, people who are
balanced, calm, composed.
o Psychoticism vs. Sociability: It was added later. Psychoticism
referred to people who tended to be hostile, non-conformist etc.
Sociable people followed all rules and norms.
 CATELL’S 16PF THEORY
Catell divided traits into two types- surface traits and source traits.
Surface traits are the aspects of personality that can easily be seen by
other people in the outward actions of a person. Source traits are the
more basic traits that underlie the surface traits, forming the core of
the personality. He discovered sixteen source traits and created the
sixteen personality factor questionnaire based on them. It had 160
questions, with ten for each trait. Sources: L, life data; Q
questionnaire; T is objective test to analyze personality structures.
These sixteen source traits are seen as trait dimensions, or
continuums, in which there are two opposite traits at each end with
many possible degrees of the traits possible along the dimension. For
example, someone scoring near the reserved end of the
reserved/outgoing dimension would be more introverted than someone
in the middle or the opposite end. Shyness, not talking could be the
surface traits for introversion.
FACTOR ANALYSIS is a technique that looks for groupings and
commonalities in numerical data.
 ALLPORT’S TRAIT THEORY
According to Allport’s theory, traits can be categorized into three
types-
o Cardinal Traits: Traits that are very important and form the core
of a person’s personality. For e.g., Gandhi’s non-violence, Mother
Teresa’s kindness etc.
o Central Traits: They are less important than cardinal traits and
are mainly used by other people to describe you. For e.g.-
loyalty, friendliness etc.
o Secondary Traits: They are the least important and focus on a
person’s likes/preferences or dislikes. For e.g., she hates tea
made from different kinds of berries.
Discuss briefly the Type Theory to Personality.
 HIPPOCRATES
Hippocrates classified personalities on the basis of four bodily fluids-
o Blood: Sanguine personality type, which tends to be cheerful,
light hearted, etc.
o Yellow Bile: Choleric personality type, which tends to be irritable,
angry, ambitious etc.
 o Phlegm: Phlegmatic personality type, which tends to be cold,
calm, slow, indifferent etc.
o Black Bile: Melancholic personality type, which tends to be
depressed, sad, dejected, pessimistic etc.
 SHELDON’S CLASSIFICATION
Sheldon proposed a theory correlating temperament and body type.
He divided people into three types-
o Endomorph: These people have soft, fat and round bodies. They
are sociable and relaxed.
o Ectomorph: These people are tall, thin and flat-chested, having
skin, bones and neural structure predominantly. They are shy,
reserved and self-conscious.
o Mesomorph: These people are well built with heavy and strong
muscle. They are physically active, noisy, adventurous.
 CARL JUNG’S CLASSIFICATION
Divided personality into two types- Introverts and Extroverts.
 FRIEDMAN AND ROSENMAN’S CLASSIFICATION
Type A and Type B. Type C and Type D were given later.
Discuss the various means of assessment of personality.
 INTERVIEWS
Interviews are a method of personality assessment in which the
professional asks questions from the client and allows the client to
answer, either in a structured or unstructured fashion. The problem
with interviews is that the client may distort or hide the true
information. Further, the interviewer may be biased.
 PROJECTIVE TESTS
Projective tests utilize a defense mechanism called projection, in which
a person places or ‘projects’ their own unacceptable thoughts onto
others, as if those thoughts belong to others and not to themselves.
Projective tests, thus, are personality assessments that present
ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond
with whatever comes to mind. Some projective tests include-
o Rorschach Inkblot Test: In this test, 10 inkblots were used as the
ambiguous stimuli.
o Thematic Apperception Test: This test uses 20 pictures of people
in ambiguous situations as the visual stimuli
 The problem with projection tests is that that are very subjective in
nature. The interpretation of responses is difficult and requires a lot of
expertise.
 BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT
In behavioral assessment, inferences of a person’s personality are
made through the observation of their behavior. Generally, it is done
through direct observation, wherein the professional observes the
client engaged in ordinary, day-to-day behavior in either a clinical or
natural setting. The problem with this is that the client may undergo
the observer effect, i.e. their behavior could be affected by being
watched. Second type is rating scales, and the third is frequency
counts.
 PERSONALITY INVENTORIES
A standardized questionnaire that require specific answers. 16PF,
Eysenck’s questionnaire, Myer Brigg’s, Minnesota multi phasing
personality 2 (measure traits based on 10 scales which measure minor
and major personality disorders)
INTELLIGENCE 11/15/2017 5:21:00 AM

What is Intelligence?
Intelligence is the ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire
knowledge, and use resources efficiently in adapting to new situations or
solving problems.
It includes-
 The ability to solve problems
 The capacity to adapt and learn from experiences

 Includes characteristics such as creativity and interpersonal skills

 The mental abilities that enable one to adapt to, shape, or select one’s
environment
 The ability to judge, comprehend, and reason

 The ability to understand and deal with people, objects, and symbols
 
 The ability to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively
with the environment
Intelligence can fluctuate dramatically from childhood to adolescence.
What are the methods of Measuring Intelligence?
INTELLIGENT QUOTIENT
Intelligence quotient is the measure of intelligence that takes into account
a child’s mental and chronological age. It can be calculated according to
the following formula-

IQ Score = MA / CA x 100

 Mental age (MA): the typical intelligence level found for people at a
given chronological age
 Chronological age (CA): the actual age of the child taking the
intelligence test
People whose mental age is equal to their chronological age will always
have an IQ of 100. If the chronological age exceeds mental age – below-
average intelligence (below 100). If the mental age exceed the
chronological age – above-average intelligence (above 100).
The normal distribution: most of the population falls in the middle range
of scores between 84 and 116.
 Very Superior Intelligence (gifted) - Above 130
 Superior Intelligence - 120 to 129
 High Average Intelligence - 110 to 119
 Average Intelligence - 90 to 109
 Low Average Intelligence - 80 to 89
 Borderline Intellectual Functioning - 71 to 79
 Mild Mental Retardation - 55 to 70

 Moderate Retardation - 40 to 54

 Severe Mental Retardation - 25 to 39
 Profound Mental Retardation - Below 25

What are the various Tests for Measuring Intelligence?

STANFORD-BINET TEST
This test was developed to identify children who had serious intellectual
difficulties, such that they would not succeed in the public school system
and who should not be placed in the same classes with other students.
This test measured things that were necessary for school success such as
understanding and using language, computational skills, memory, and the
ability to follow instructions.
It studies individual responses in four content areas-
 Verbal reasoning
 Quantitative reasoning
 Abstract/visual reasoning
 Short-term memory
WECHSLER TESTS
These tests each have a verbal and a performance (non verbal) scale, and
provide an overall score of intelligence. The verbal component scale tests
vocabulary, comprehension, and general knowledge, whereas the
performance component scale tests such skills as arranging blocks to
match a pattern, identifying missing parts in a picture, and putting
pictures representing a story in order. It includes three types of tests-
 Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
 Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
 Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence
What are the various Theories of Intelligence?
SPEARMAN’S G FACTOR THEORY
Spearman saw intelligence as two different abilities, measurable by
intelligence tests. The ability to reason and solve problems was labeled g-
factor for general intelligence, whereas the ability to excel in certain areas
such as music, business or art was labeled as s-factor or specific
intelligence. Traditional IQ tests measure only the g-factor and Spearman
believed that superiority in one type of intelligence meant superiority
overall. His theory was criticized for oversimplifying the concept of
intelligence.
GARDNER’S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
Gardner believed that there are eight types of intelligences, each of which
are present in every person in varying degrees. These multiple
intelligences are related to how an individual prefers to learn and process
information.
 Verbal skills: The ability to think in words and use language to express
meaning

o Sensitivity to the meanings and sounds of words, mastery of
syntax, appreciation of the ways language can be used (authors,
journalists, speakers, poets, teachers)
 Mathematical skills: The ability to carry out mathematical operations
o o Understanding of objects and symbols and of actions that be
performed on them and of the relations between these actions,
ability for abstraction, ability to identify problems and seek
explanations (scientists, engineers, accountants)
 Spatial skills: The ability to think three-dimensionally

 o Capacity to perceive the visual world accurately, to perform
transformations upon perceptions and to re-create aspects of
visual experience in the absence of physical stimuli, sensitivity to
tension, balance, and composition, ability to detect similar
patterns (architects, artists, sailors, chess masters)
 Bodily-kinesthetic skills: The ability to manipulate objects and be
physically adept

o Use of one’s body in highly skilled ways for expressive or goal-
directed purposes, capacity to handle objects skillfully (surgeons,
craftspeople, dancers, athletes, actors)
 Musical skills: A sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone

o Sensitivity to individual tones and phrases of music, an
understanding of ways to combine tones and phrases into larger
musical rhythms and structures, awareness of emotional aspects
of music(musicians, composers, sensitive listeners)
 
 Interpersonal skills: The ability to understand and effectively interact
with others
o Ability to notice and make distinctions among the moods,
temperaments, motivations, and intentions of other people and
potentially to act on this knowledge (teachers, mental health
professionals, parents, religious and political leaders)
 Intrapersonal skills: The ability to understand oneself

o Access to one’s own feelings, ability to draw on one’s emotions
to guide and understand one’s behavior, recognition of personal
strengths and weaknesses (theologians, novelists, psychologists,
therapists)

 Naturalistic skills: The ability to observe patterns in nature and
understand natural and human-made systems
o Sensitivity and understanding of plants, animals, and other
aspects of nature (farmers, botanists, ecologists, landscapers,
environmentalists)
STERNBERG’S TRIARCHIC THEORY
According to Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence, there are three
kinds of intelligence- analytical, creative and practical.
 Analytical intelligence: The ability to acquire and store information; to
retain or retrieve information; to transfer information; to plan, make
decisions, and solve problems; and to translate thoughts into
performance
 o How efficiently people process information
o 
 How to solve problems, how to monitor solutions, and how to
evaluate the results

o The use of strategies, acquiring knowledge

o Students high in analytical intelligence do well in class with
lecture and objective tests. They are considered smart, get good
grades, do well on traditional tests, and go to competitive
colleges.
 Creative intelligence: The ability to solve new problems quickly; the
ability to learn how to solve familiar problems in an automatic way so
the mind is free to handle other problems that require insight and
creativity
o How people approach familiar or novel tasks
o Compare new information with what they already know and to
come up with new ways of putting facts together

o To think originally

o Students high in creative intelligence might not conform to
traditional schools. They tend to give unique answers for which
they might get reprimanded.
 Practical intelligence: The ability to get out of trouble; The ability to
get along with other people
o How people deal with their environment

o How to size up a situation and decide what to do – to adapt to it,
to change it, or to get out of it

o Students high in practical intelligence don’t relate well in
traditional schools. They do well outside the classroom walls with
good social skills and common sense.
What do you understand by Development Quotient?
Developmental Quotient (DQ): An overall developmental score that
combines subscores on motor, language, adaptive, and personal-social
domains in the Gesell assessment of infants.
What do you understand by fluid and crystallized intelligence?
 CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE: It is the accumulated information and
verbal skills, which increase with age.
 FLUID INTELLIGENCE: It is the ability to reason abstractly, which
steadily declines from middle adulthood.
What are the various factors that influence intelligence?
 PERSON’S INFLUENCE
 o Genetics
o Genotype-Environment Interaction
o Gender
o Boys and girls have identical IQ levels, with extreme levels
(both high and low) over represented in boys.
o Girls tends to be stronger in verbal fluency, writing and in
perceptual speed.
o Boys tend to be stronger in visual-spatial processing, in
science, and in mathematical problem solving.
 IMMEDIATE ENVIRONMENT’S INFLUENCE
o Family environment
o School environment
o Attending school makes kids smarter
o During school, kids from stable as well as unstable
economic backgrounds perform equally well.
o During the breaks, the students with lower economic
background lag behind in their academic achievements.
 SOCIETY’S INFLUENCE
o Poverty
o Children from poorer families do worse on IQ tests
o Chronic or short-term inadequate diet can result in
impaired brain development.
o Race/Ethnicity
Work Psychology 11/15/2017 5:21:00 AM

What is Work Psychology?

Work psychology is a discipline which covers a broad range of
psychological issues encountered in the work place. It encompasses both
the individual and organizational levels of analysis.
What areas do Work Psychologists operate in?
 Selection and assessment: For all types of job by a variety of
methods, including tests and interviews.
 Training: Identification of training needs; the design, delivery and
evaluation of training.
 Performance appraisal: Identification of key aspects of job
performance; design of systems for accurate performance assessment;
training in appraisal techniques.
 Organizational change and development: Analysis of systems and
relationships with a view to possible change; implementation of any
such change (e.g. new technology).
 Ergonomics and equipment design: Analysis and design of work
equipment and environments to fit human physical and cognitive
capabilities.
 Career choice, development and counseling: Analysis of a person's
abilities, interests and values, and their translation into occupational
terms.
 Interpersonal skills: Identification and development of skills such as
leadership, assertiveness, negotiation, group working and relationships
with other individuals.
 Equal opportunities: Monitoring, and if necessary enhancing,
opportunities for minority groups at work.
 Occupational safety and health: Examination of causes of accidents
and introduction of measures to reduce their frequency of occurrence.
 Work design: Allocation of tasks so that jobs are as satisfying and
motivating as possible. 11 Attitude surveys Design, conduct and
analysis of surveys (e.g. by questionnaire or interview) of employee
opinions and experiences at work. .
 Well-being and work: Investigation of factors which lead to stress in
work and unemployment, and identification of ways to prevent and
manage stress.
What are the origins of Work Psychology?
Work psychology has at least two distinct roots. One resides in a pair of
traditions that have often been termed 'fitting the man [sic] to the job'
(FMJ) and 'fitting the job to the man [sic]' (FJM). The FMJ tradition
manifests itself in employee selection, training and vocational guidance.
These endeavors have in common an attempt to achieve an effective
match between job and person by concentrating on the latter. The FJM
tradition focuses instead on the job; and in particular the design of tasks,
equipment and working conditions which suit a person' s physical and
psychological characteristics.
The FMJ and FJM traditions essentially concern the relationship between
individuals and their work. The other root of work psychology can be
loosely labeled human relations. It is concerned with the complex
interplay between individuals, groups, organizations and work.
What are the various research methods employed in Work Psychology?
 Questionnaires/psychometric tests
Questionnaires are often used to assess a person's attitudes, values,
opinions, beliefs or experiences. Psychometric tests are normally
employed to measure ability or personality.
 Interviews
In interviews, the work psychologists interact with employees in one to
one conversations, or in small groups. Interviews can be structured or
unstructured.
 Psychophysiological assessment
This involves measurement of a person's neurological, biological or
physiological state, as it relates to their psychological functioning.
 Observation
A work psychologist may observe people's behavior by stationing him-
or herself as unobtrusively as possible, and recording the frequency,
source and timing of behavior. This can be termed structured
observation. Alternatively, the work psychologist may participate in the
events he or she is studying. This is participant observation.
 Archival Sources
This is strictly a source of data rather than a method of collecting it.
Archival information already exists before the work psychologist's
investigation. Data from archival sources are most often used either to
provide a context for a particular research project, or to investigate the
impact of an event on the functioning of an organization.
 Surveys
The key distinguishing feature of a survey is that it does not intervene
in naturally occurring events, nor does it control them. It simply takes
a snapshot of what is happening, usually by asking people about it.
The aim is usually to gather quantitative information about certain
phenomena (for example, events, attitudes) from a large number of
people.
 11/15/2017 5:21:00 AM