Departemen Fisiologi

Fakultas kedokteran
Universitas Sumatera Utara
1. Menjelaskan konsep homeostasis dan arti
pentingnya untuk organisme.
2. Menjelaskan aspek-aspek yang dipertahankan
dalam homeostasis.
3. Menggambarkan bagaimana feedback positif dan
negatif, feedforward dan refleks berperan untuk
meregulasi homeostasis, beserta contohnya.
 Body cells are in contact with the
privately maintained internal
environment.
 Internal environment: outside the
cells but inside the body
(extracellular fluid)
 Extracellular fluid: plasma and
interstitial fluid
 Body cells can live and function only
when the extracellular fluid is
compatible with their survival.
 Maintenance of a relatively stable
internal environment is termed
homeostasis (homeo means “the same”;
stasis means “to stand or stay).
Make up Is essential
for survival
of
1. Concentration of nutrient molecules
2. Concentration of O2 and CO2
3. Concentration of waste products
4. pH
5. Concentration of water, salt, and other
electrolytes
6. Temperature
7. Volume and pressure
1. Circulatory system: transport system, carries
materials such as nutrients and hormones from
one part of body to another
2. Digestive system: breaks down dietary food into
small nutrient molecules that can be absorbed
into plasma for distribution to the body cells
3. Respiratory system: obtains O2 from and

eliminates CO2 to external environment

4. Urinary system: removes excess water, salt, acid

and other electrolytes from plasma and eliminate
them in the urine
5. Skeletal system: provide support and protection
for soft tissues and organs
6. Muscular system: moves the bones to which
skeletal muscles are attached, enables an
individual to move toward food or away from harm
7. Integumentary system: serve as an outer
protective barrier that prevents internal fluid from
being lost from body and foreign micro-
organisms from entering
8. Immune system: defends against foreign invaders
and against body cells that have become
cancerous
9. Nervous system: one of the two major regulatory
systems of the body
10. Endocrine system: other major regulatory system
 Is a functionally interconnected network of
body components that operate to maintain a
given chemical or physical factor in the
internal environment relatively constant
around an optimal level
Control system must be able:

1. Detect deviations from normal in internal

environment factor that needs to be held within
narrow limits
2. Integrate this information with any other relevant
information
3. Make appropriate adjustments in activity of body
parts responsible for restoring this factor to its
desired value.
 Homestatic control system:

1. Intrinsic (local) control are built into or are inherent

in an organ (within).
Ex: as an exercising skeletal muscle rapidly uses up
O2 to generate energy to support its contractile

activity, the O2 concentration within the muscle

falls causing smooth muscle of blood vessels that
supply the exercising muscle dilate or open widely
as result increased blow flow bringing more O2 into
the exercising muscle.
2. Extrinsic factors (>>>): regulatory mechanisms
initiated outside an organ to alter activity of the
organ (outside of); accomplished by nervous
system and endocrine system.
Ex: to restore blood pressure to proper level when
it falls too low, the nervous system simultaneously
acts on heart and blood vessels to increase blood
pressure to normal
 To stabilize physiological factor being regulated
homeostatic control system must be able to
respond to and resist change
 The term Feedback refers to responses made after
a change has been detected; intrinsic control &
extrinsic control
 The term Feedforward is used for responses made
in anticipation of a change; extrinsic control
 Negative feedback: change in homeostatically
controlled factor triggers a response that seeks to
restore the factor to normal by moving the factor in
the opposite direction of its initial change
 Ex: when temperature-monitoring nerve cells
detect a decrease in body temperature below the
desired level, these sensors bring about sequence
of events that culminates in shivering , among
other responses, to generate heat and increase the
temperature to the proper level
 Positive feedback (<<<), the output is
continually enhanced or amplified so that the
controlled variable continues to be moved in
the direction of the initial change.
Ex: in the birth of a baby, hormone oxytocin causes
powerful contractions of the uterus, as uterine
contraction push the baby against the cervix (exit
from uterus), the resultant stretching of the cervix
triggers a sequence of events that brings about
release of even more oxytocin, which causes even
stronger uterine contraction, triggering the release
more oxytocin and so on.
 Feedforward bring about a response in anticipation
of a change in a regulated variable.
Ex: when a meal is still in the digestive tract, a
feedforward mechanism increases the secretion of
a hormone that will promote the cellular uptake
and storage of ingested nutrients after they have
been absorbed from the digestive tract.
Processes Related
Homeostasis
A state of
balance
in the body

Department of Physiology
University of Sumatera Utara
 Learning Objective

1. Menjelaskan arti dan efek aklimatisasi

terhadap proses homeostasis.
2. Menjelaskan pengaruh irama biologis
terhadap respon homeostasis.
3. memahami peran apoptosis dalam
homeostasis.
4. Menjelaskan efek aging terhadap
kemampuan sistem kontrol homeostasis.
 homeo = same; stasis = standing
 Homeostasis is the term we use to describe the
constant state of the internal environment.
 Homeostasis is a state of
balance in the body.
 The processes and activities
that help to maintain homeostasis are referred to as
homeostatic mechanisms.
most of the common physiological variables
found in normal, healthy organisms are
maintained at relatively steady states.

i.e. blood pressure, body temperature, blood

oxygen, and sodium.

This is true despite external conditions that

are not constant.
Physiology vs. Pathophysiology
If all your major organ systems are in
homeostasis, then you are in good health.
diseases take one or more systems out of

homeostasis.
Physiology : When homeostasis is maintained

Pathophysiology : homeostasis is not

maintained.
A sequence of events that link a stimulus to the response.
Components of Homeostatic Control Systems
 Components of Homeostatic Control Systems

“Active product” controls the sequence of chemical reactions

by inhibiting the sequence’s rate-limiting enzyme, “Enzyme A.”
Glucose homeostasis
Adaptation :
Characteristic that favors survival in specific environments.

Acclimatization:
Type of adaptation that enhances an individuals ability to
respond to a particular environmental stress.

No change in genetics is involved

If it occurs early in life (critical period) it is termed

“developmental acclimatization.”

Developmental acclimatization is irreversible.

Most other acclimatization's are completely irreversible.

For example, the barrel-shaped chests of natives of the
Andes Mountains represent not a genetic difference
between them and their lowland compatriots but rather an
irreversible acclimatization induced during the first few
years of their lives by their exposure to the lowoxygen
environment of high altitude.

The altered chest size remains even though the individual

moves to a lowland environment later in life and stays
there.
 If daily exposure to the stress
is eliminated, then
acclimatization is reversible…
 Some acclimatizations that
happen early in life may
become permanent.
 Natives of the Andes
Mountains
 Low oxygen levels cause
increased chest sizes,
wide nostrils, broad
dental arches
Many body functions are rhythmic
› Occur in 24 hour (circadian rhythm) cycles

› Sleep/wake, body temp., hormone levels,

etc…

› Are anticipatory (kind of like feedforward

systems without detectors)
 Circadian Rhythm
Rhythmical changes the body undergoes over a certain
time period. (usually 24hrs).

Regulated by hypothalamus (suprachiasmatic

nucleus). “Pacemaker”

Pacemaker receives information about the external

environment from the eyes and other portions of
the nervous system.

Pacemaker uses this information to either inhibit or

excite other areas of the brain that control various
bodily functions.
In the hypothalamus
› A group of nerve cells (suprachiasmatic nucleus)
› Acts as the pacemaker for rhythms
 Pacemaker receives input from the eyes and other
senses.
 Then it sends signals to other parts of the brain that
control other systems, activating some and inhibiting
others.
 Not well understood
 Processes related to homeostasis: adaptation and acclimatization
asleep asleep

A full analysis of the

hormone cortisol requires

not only knowledge of the

signals that cause its
synthesis and secretion
but also consideration
of biological rhythms.
 Light/dark cycle is very
important, but not the
only one.
 External environmental
temperature
 Meal timing
 Social cues
› Sleep experiment people
are separated, their
cycles are each different.
› Put them together and
their cycles synchronize
Remember that most homeostatic responses are
corrective, they occur after homeostasis is
perturbed

› Rhythms cause responses to occur when a

challenge is likely but before it actually does.
 Urinary excretion of potassium is high during
the day and low at night.
Environmental factors don’t drive the rhythms,
but provide timing cues.
› Sleeping experiment (no light cues)

› Sleep/wake cycle is a free-running rhythm

› Sleep/wake cycles can vary between 23-27

hours but not more or less than that.
Pacemaker sends signal to pineal gland
› Gland releases melatonin
› Pineal secretes during darkness, not
daylight
› Melatonin influences other organs
› Makes you sleepy
Environmental time cues can phase-shift rhythms.
› Going from LA to Atlanta and staying for a week.

› Circadian rhythm will adjust, but it takes time

› In the meantime, you suffer jet lag

 Sleep disruption, gastrointestinal trouble,

decreased vigilance and attention span,
general malaise
Defined :
› The ability to self-destruct by activation of an
intrinsic program within the cell

 Important for

 sculpting a developing organism or

 Eliminating undesirable cells (cancerous)

Crucial for regulating the number of cells in a tissue or
organ.

› Control of cell number is determined by a

balance between cell proliferation (addition of
new cells by mitosis) and cell death (apoptosis)
 Neutrophils (cells alive)
Controlled autodigestion of cell organelles.

› Enzymes breakdown the nucleus and then other organelles

 The cell membrane isn’t digested.

 The cell sends out chemical signals that recruit

phagocytic cells (cells that “eat” other cells).

› This is different than what happens when a cell is injured

(necrosis)
Virtually all cells have the apoptosis enzymes.

› Why aren’t they turned on?

 A large number of molecules called “survivor signals” keep

the cell from activating the enzymes.
 So most cells are programmed to commit suicide UNLESS
they receive a signal to stay alive.
 Prostate gland cells will die if testosterone is not present
 Cancer cells undergo uncontrolled cell proliferation.
› So the apoptosis enzymes are always turned off.
 In degenerative diseases (osteoporosis)
› The rate of cell death is higher than that of cell
proliferation.
 Drugs that reduce rate of apoptosis
Thank you,,