The Endocrine System 1.
PITUITARY
Chemistry of Hormones
Hormones are chemical substances secreted by endocrine
cells into the extracellular fluids that regulate the metabolic
activity of other cells in the body.
Classifications.
(1) amino acid–based molecules - including proteins,
peptides, and amines; or
(2) steroids. made from cholesterol; include the sex
hormones made by the gonads (ovaries and testes) and
the hormones produced by the adrenal cortex.
(3) prostaglandins - made from highly active lipids released
from nearly all cell membranes.
Actions.
Although hormones circulate to all organs, it only affects a
particular organ called a target. For a target cell to respond to
a hormone, specific protein receptors to which that hormone
can attach must be present on the cell’s plasma membrane or
in its interior. Only when this binding occurs can the hormone
influence the workings of a cell.
What prompts the endocrine glands to release or not
release their hormones?
The stimuli that activate endocrine glands fall into three major
categories—
1. hormonal;
2. humoral; and
3. neural
I. Hormonal
 The method in which endocrine organs are prodded into
action by other hormones.
 For example, hormones of the hypothalamus stimulate the
anterior pituitary gland to secrete its hormones, and many
anterior pituitary hormones stimulate other endocrine
organs to release their hormones into the blood.
 When hormone level rises, negative feedback mechanism
comes in.
II. Humoral
Changing blood levels of certain ions and nutrients may also
stimulate hormone release. This is called humoral.
Examples.
(1) a decreasing blood calcium ion level in the capillaries
serving the parathyroid glands prompts the release of
parathyroid hormone (PTH) to cause a rise in the level of
Calcium.
(2) insulin, released by the pancreas
(3) calcitonin, released by the thyroid gland
III. Neural
It is one where release of hormones is by response to nervous
responses. The classic example is sympathetic nervous system
stimulation of the adrenal medulla to release the
catecholamines norepinephrine and epinephrine during periods
of stress.
The ENDOCRINE GLANDS.
2. PINEAL
3. THYROID
4. PARATHYROID
5. THYMUS
6. ADRENAL GLANDS
7. PANCREAS
8. GONADS
I. The Pituitary Gland
It has 2 main divisions:
(1) anterior – it is regarded as the master endocrine organ; it
secretes (6) hormones.
a. GH - directed to the growth of skeletal muscles and
long bones of the body, and thus it plays an important
role in determining final body size.
b. Prolactin - After childbirth, it stimulates and
maintains milk production by the mother’s breasts. Its
function in men is not known.
c. FSH – maturation of the egg cells; spermatogenesis
in males
d. LH – testosterone production in males; corpus luteum
production in females
e. ACTH – regulates the adrenal cortex activity
f. TSH – or thyrotropic hormones; regulates the thyroid
activity
(2) posterior. The hypothalamus makes two additional
hormones, oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone, which are
transported to the posterior pituitary for storage. They are later
released into the blood in response hypothalamic control.
 Oxytocin – is for uterine contraction
 ADH - ADH causes the kidneys to reabsorb more water
from the forming urine; as a result, urine volume
decreases, and blood volume increases.
II. Pineal Gland
The pineal gland is a small, cone- shaped gland that hangs
from the roof of the third ventricle of the brain. The endocrine
function of this gland is the secretion of melatonin. The level
of melatonin rises and falls during the course of the day and
night. The peak level occurs at night. This hormone is a sleep-
trigger.
III. Thyroid Glands
The thyroid gland is located at the base of the throat, just
inferior to the Adam’s apple. It is a fairly large gland
consisting of two lobes joined by a central mass, or isthmus.
It secretes 2 hormones:
1. thyroid hormone
2. calcitonin
A. Thyroid Hormones
Thyroid hormone, often referred to as the body’s major
metabolic hormone. Thyroid hormone controls the rate at
which glucose is “burned,” or oxidized, and converted to body
heat and chemical energy (ATP). It is actually comprised of
two active iodine-containing hormones.
a. thyroxine or T4. stressful situations and cause the so-called alarm stage of the
b. triiodothyronine or T3. stress response.

Hypersecretion of Thyroxine VII. Pancreas

Iodine is needed to form functional thyroid hormones. In the
absence of iodine, a person develops goiter. In the absence of
iodine, TSH calls for the release of thyroxine but what is
produced is a non-functional one. As a result, TSH is
continually produced resulting in a larger goiter.
1. insulin. - A high level of glucose in the blood stimulates the
release of insulin from the beta cells of the islets. Insulin is
absolutely necessary for the use of glucose by body cells.
Without it, essentially no glucose can get into the cells to be
used; hypoglycemic. [normal blood sugar – 80-120 mg/dl]

Hyposecretion of Thyroxine 2. glucagon – hyperglycemic. Glucagon acts as an antagonist

 Cretenism or called dwarfism in children of insulin; that is, it helps to regulate the blood glucose level
 Myxedema in Adults characterized by sluggishness both but in a way opposite that of insulin. Its release by the alpha
physically and mentally cells of the islets is stimulated by a low blood level of glucose.

B. Calcitonin VIII. Gonads

Calcitonin decreases the blood calcium ion level by causing
calcium to be deposited in the bones.
IV. Parathyroid Glands.
 Typically, there are two parathyroid glands on each
thyroid lobe, that is, a total of four parathyroids
 The parathyroids secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH),
which is the most important regulator of calcium ion
(Ca2+) homeostasis of the blood.
 When the blood calcium ion concentration drops below a
certain level, the parathyroids release PTH, which
stimulates bone destruction cells (osteoclasts) to break
down bone matrix and release calcium ions into the blood.
Thus, PTH is a hypercalcemic hormone
 If the blood calcium ion level falls too low, neurons
become extremely irritable and overactive. They deliver
impulses to the muscles so rapidly that the muscles go
into uncontrollable spasms (tetany), which may be fatal.
A. testes – secretes androgen or otherwise called testosterone.
At puberty, testosterone promotes the growth and maturation
of the reproductive system organs to prepare the young man
for reproduction. It also causes the male’s secondary sex
characteristics.
B. Ovaries – secretes estrogen and progesterone. Estrogens are
responsible for the development of sex characteristics in
women and the appearance of secondary sex characteristics
(for example, hair in the pubic and axillary regions) at puberty.
Acting with progesterone, estrogens promote breast
development and cyclic changes in the uterine lining during
menses.
The RAA Mechanism.

V. Thymus.
The thymus produces a hormone called thymosin that appear
to be essential for normal development of a special group of
white blood cells.

VI. Adrenal Glands

It has two divisions: cortex & medulla

I. The adrenal cortex produces three major groups of steroid

hormones, which are collectively called corticosteroids –
a. Mineralocorticoids – regulates sodium and potassium
b. Glucocorticoids. - When blood levels of
glucocorticoids are high, fats and even proteins are
broken down by body cells and converted to glucose,
which is released to the blood. For this reason,
glucocorticoids are said to be hyperglycemic
hormones.
c. sex hormones.- refers to testosterone and estrogen for
both males and females.
II. When the medulla is stimulated by sympathetic nervous
system neurons, its cells release two catecholamines, called
epinephrine and norepinephrine. The catecholamines of the
adrenal medulla prepare the body to cope with short-term