CENTRAL BICOL STATE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE

San Jose, Pili Camarines Sur

CROP PROTECTION 2
Approaches and Practices in Pest Management
(Lecture Materials)

CHAPTER 2
 ➢ History of Pest Management
2500 BC First records of insecticides; Sumerians used sulfur
compounds to control insects and mites. It was observed that the
element sulfur controlled some insects and mites and several fungal
diseases that damaged crops. While not every pest was affected,
sulfur had pesticidal (pest-killing) properties on several targeted
pests. So, by simply mining a material out of the ground and applying
it as a dust provided some protection from pests to crops. Elemental
sulfur is still used today, especially in some organic production
systems for control of plant diseases.

ELEMENT SULFUR
Image: Allure

Then about 500 years or so ago, around 1500 AD, and continuing until
present day, plants were discovered that effectively produced their own
pest suppressants, and upon research, some natural, plant-developed
pesticides were developed.
1. Pyrethrum (pyrethrin - insecticidal)
2. Neem tree (NEEM - insecticidal)
3. Bottlebrush plant, Callistemon sp. (herbicide Callisto)

Pyrethrum (pyrethrin - insecticidal)
The plant Pyrethrum (several species), which are showy
chrysanthemum species. Fields planted next to the Pyrethrum
seemed to have fewer insects present. The Chinese sold the dried
flowers to traders along the Silk Route to repel insects, which
resulted in Pyrethrum being introduced into Europe. Napoleon
reportedly used the pyrethrum plant to de-louse (get rid of) troops.
The chemical pyrethrum is produced in the plants and especially in
the flower heads. Extracts are still being used some to control farm
insects and also mosquitoes. Often today formulations are
chemically supplemented and enhanced to give the active
ingredient pyrethrum a longer effective control life. There is a class
of “modern” insecticides that are derived from the pyrethrin that are
called pyrethroids (including “Warrior,” “Mustang,” “Pounce,” and
“Asana”).
 Neem tree (NEEM - insecticidal)

Neem tree (NEEM - insecticidal)

Azadirachtin
a chemical compound C35H44O16 that occurs in the seeds of the neem tree
(Azadirachta indica) and is used as an insecticide Most of neem's pesticidal punch
comes from the compound azadirachtin, which disrupts insects' growth as well as
dampening their appetite.

Neem tree native to southern Asia. Neem also was observed to suppress insects
and extracts have been used as insecticides. Knowledge of the insecticidal benefits
of neem have been known in some localities for nearly a thousand years. Early
traders used it to control several field insect pests. In the last decade or so another
natural, plant-derived pesticide was discovered and developed into a modern
formulated pesticide.
Among the studied botanicals worldwide neem tree is proved to be the richest in
active compounds and one of potent sources of natural biocides. Crude extracts of
neem seeds showed significant results as insecticides in Sudan where optimum
doses are recommended for several vegetable pests.

Bottlebrush plant, Callistemon sp.

(herbicide Callisto)
Bottlebrush plant, Callistemon sp. (herbicide Callisto)
Local people observed that the bottlebrush plant,
Callistemon sp. that is native to Australia, seemed to
suppress growth of some neighboring plants. Research
led to isolation of a chemical with herbicidal effects, and
that is the basis for the compound mesotrione.
Mesotrione is the active ingredient in the commonly
used herbicide Callisto.
Synthetic Chemicals that were used before

1. Paris green (copper acetoarsenate)

2. Bordeaux mix (copper sulfate and hydrated lime)
3. Lead arsenate
4. Creosote (coal tar derivative)
5. Sodium hypochlorite

Paris green (copper acetoarsenate) Paris green (copper acetoarsenate) is a very

toxic compound to most living creatures (a side
note: Paris green has also been used as a
bright green pigment by several artists,
including Cezanne and Vincent Van Gogh—and
likely contributed to health problems for both of
them). Paris green will control many insects, but
also persists in the areas where it has been
applied. It is not currently registered as a
pesticide in the United States.

It was said that at the Paris Opera one evening in 1864, Empress Eugenie wore a gown so
breathtaking it made newspaper headlines the very next morning. The dress was a spectacular
deep-set green, its colors vivid enough to remain unchanged by gaslight. Soon after, “Paris
green” became the color of the social elite, not only on their garments but adorning their walls
as well. The trend would eventually reach Victorian England, and people would die as a result.

Bordeaux mix (copper sulfate and hydrated lime)

Bordeaux mix (copper sulfate and
hydrated lime)
Bordeaux mix is a blend of copper
sulfate and hydrated lime that found
most prominent early use in the
grape vineyards of France in the
1880s.

It can control a multitude of fungal diseases with its copper ions interfering with the
germination of fungal spores. Bordeaux mix is still in use in some places, but it does leave
soluble copper that can remain in the soil or move to nearby water resources after repeated
heavy use. Bordeaux mixture is a fungicide made of copper sulphate and calcium hydroxide,
the latter better known as lime. It was invented in the Bordeaux region of France in the late
19th century. If it is applied in large quantities annually for many years, the copper in the
mixture eventually becomes a pollutant. As such its sale and use is illegal in Great Britain and
most of the European Union.
Lead arsenate

Lead arsenate was first used in about 1892 against gypsy moths in New England as an
alternative to the equally toxic Paris green, which caused considerable damage to the
targeted crop. Lead arsenate performed well, but the discovery in 1919 that it was nearly
impossible to wash it from produce severely limited its use. Other, less problematic
arsenates (notably Calcium arsenate) were used, but it was in 1947 when DDT really took
over as a replacement insecticide. There now exist a few areas where heavy repeated use
of lead arsenate has left environmental “clean-up” sites that are difficult to correct. The
lesson here is that new technologies may initially be relatively trouble free, but sometimes
later issues develop that can be considerable problems.
Although lead arsenate was banned in the United States in 1988, the persistence of residual
lead and arsenic, resulting from the use of this pesticide in soil, still raises questions about
its potential risk to human and environmental health across the United States

Creosote (coal tar derivative)

Creosote (coal tar derivative)

was used to control some insect species, notably by
coating trenches dug at the field edge with creosote
to intercept chinch bugs (a major pest of grasses a
century ago) moving in mass from field to field.
Sodium hypochlorite
Sodium hypochlorite

Sodium hypochlorite has been used for more

than a century, and is the chemical in
household bleaches. A 10-percent solution
of sodium hypochlorite is used as a surface
sterilant in homes and laboratories to this
day.
Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) is a solution
made from reacting chlorine with a sodium
hydroxide solution. These two reactants are
the major co-products from most chlor-alkali
cells. Sodium hypochlorite, commonly
referred to as bleach, has a variety of uses
and is an excellent disinfectant/antimicrobial
agent.

▪ 200 BC Romans advocated oil sprays for pest control.

▪ 300 AD First records of biological controls; Chinese used. predatory ants
in citrus orchards to control caterpillar and beetle pests.
▪ 1880 First commercial spraying machine.
▪ 1930 Introduction of synthetic organic compounds for plant pathogen
control.
▪ 1940 First successful use of an entomopathogen; Milky Spore (Bacillus
popillae) used to control Japanese beetle.

➢ Supervised insect control –

▪ Shortly after World War II, when synthetic insecticides became widely
available, entomologists in California developed the concept of Supervised
Control.
▪ It is an alternative to calendar-based insecticide programs.
▪ Supervised control was based on a sound knowledge of the ecology and
analysis of projected trends in pest and natural-enemy populations.
➢ Integrated control-
▪ Supervised control formed much of the conceptual basis for "integrated
control “that University of California entomologists articulated in the 1950s.
▪ Integrated control sought to identify the best mix of chemical and biological
controls for a given insect pest.
▪ The adage of "if a little works, a lot will work better “was the major premise
for applying chemical to address pest problems on the farm and around the
home
 ➢ Ecological Backlash –
▪ As early as the 1950's, pesticide-induced problems such as pest
resurgence, pest replacement, and pesticide resistance caused problems
in agriculture.
➢ Pest resurgence - In 1959, scientists discovered that aphids could be better
controlled by reducing the amount of pesticide used because the pesticides were
killing aphid predators as well as the aphids themselves, causing large-scale pest
resurgence (Stern, et al., 1959).

The dawn of modern insecticides

In about 1939, the synthetic chemical DDT (dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane) was
discovered to be an effective contact poison with strong insecticidal properties.
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, commonly known as DDT, is a colorless, tasteless, and
almost odorless crystalline chemical compound, an organochlorine. Originally developed
as an insecticide, it became infamous for its environmental impacts. DDT was first
synthesized in 1874 by the Austrian chemist Othmar Zeidler. Immediately DDT found use
to control mosquitoes that spread malaria and lice that spread typhus to both troops and
civilians. The savings of lives was amazing. After the war, DDT found immediate wide
use to control field crop pests. Some view the introduction of DDT as an insecticide as
the dawn of the modern insecticide era.

Human health effects from DDT at low environmental doses are unknown. Following
exposure to high doses, human symptoms can include vomiting, tremors or shakiness,
and seizures. Laboratory animal studies showed effects on the liver and reproduction.
DDT is considered a possible human carcinogen.

During World War II, the herbicide 2, 4-D was used to clear forest canopies to expose
troop placements. After the war, 2, 4-D became very popular broadleaf herbicide in U. S.
corn and sorghum production, and lead a revolution in developing herbicides used for
selective weed control.
2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid is an organic compound with the chemical
formula C8H6Cl2O3 which is usually referred to by its ISO common name 2,4-D. It is a
systemic herbicide which selectively kills most broadleaf weeds by causing uncontrolled
growth in them but most grasses such as cereals, lawn turf, and grassland are relatively
unaffected.
Popular Broadleaf Weeds are Chickweed, Clover, Dandelion, Wild Geranium, Ivy,
Milkweed, Plaintain (Broadleaf), and Thistle.

In 1948, Warfarin was registered as a rodenticide. The basic active ingredient of

Warfarin™ is dicoumarol, which was isolated from moldy sweet clover hay. Numerous
stories abound of cattle fed moldy sweet clover and then suffering injuries (cuts through
fences or de-horning or castration are notable) and dying because their blood could not
clot. Warfarin™-poisoned rats and mice die from uncontrollable internal bleeding.
Warfarin™ has another interesting use in human medicine, and is a great example of a
toxin actually serving a therapeutic purpose if the dosage is managed. Because it inhibits
blood clotting, controlled doses can greatly help people who have blood clotting issues
(heart attacks, strokes, etc). Marketed medicinally as Coumadin [koo’-mah-din], President
Eisenhower was one of the first patients to be treated with it when he suffered a heart
attack in 1955.

➢ Pest Management –
▪ The concept of 'pest management' was proposed in 1961 (Geier and Clark,
1961)
▪ For the reduction of pest problems actions are selected after the life
systems of the pests are understood and the ecological and economic
consequences of these actions have been predicted, as accurately as
possible, to be in the best interests of mankind.
▪ Widespread pest resistance in 1950’s to DDT and other Pesticides
▪ Environmental Awareness during the 1960s – new awareness of
ecology and the environmental impact of pesticide pollution resulted from
a public outcry about environmental contamination found in the air and foul
water found in rivers and streams.
▪ By 1962, when "Silent Spring" by Rachel Carson was published, serious
concerns about the disadvantages of pesticide use were widely raised .
▪ Rachel Carson and others suggested that pest control methods other than
chemical pesticides should be used in order to protect wildlife, human
health and the environment.
▪ Public pressure led to government legislation restricting pesticide use in
many countries resulting in ban of DDT and other pesticides.
▪ Integrated Pest Management- In 1967 the term IPM was introduced by
R.F. Smith and R. van den Bosch.
▪ The term IPM was formalized by the US National Academy of Sciences in
1969.

➢ Integrated Control
▪ Integrated Control was the first term coined to address this concept; it was
created by a group of entomologists in the late 1950’s at the University of
California at Riverside led by V. Stern. Integrated Control emphasized the
selective use of chemicals so that natural enemies were conserved in the
ecosystem.
➢ Pest Management
▪ The term Pest Management came about in the early 1960’s, which then
evolved into Integrated Pest Management (IPM). However, many aspects
of IPM have been practiced since plants were first cultivated by humans.
Discontent with a purely pesticidal approach started the push to look for
other ways to control pests.
INSECT PEST CONTROL -The regulation of the insect pest population below the
economic threshold level

Factors influencing the regulation of Insect Population

1. Climate
2. Competition

Principles of Insect Control

• Reduction of Population of Insect Pests
✓ Exclusionary measures - applied directly against insect pests to keep out
those pests that are already outside the field, farm, region, or the country.
✓ Eradicative measures - get rid of insect pests already present in an area.
✓ Therapeutic measures - control insect pests by acting directly against the
pests, but only after the pest-victim relationship has begun.
✓ Vertical resistance - heritable capacity of the plant species to withstand the
onslaught (fierce attack) of a would-be pest.

• Decelerating the Rate at which Insect Pest Population Increase

✓ Horizontal Resistance - inherited polygenically, quantitative, or relative. It
permits some infection/infestation (colonization) by insects or pests.
✓ Protection or protective measure - any effort that control pests; their effects
slow down the rate of increase of insect population.
✓ Avoidance - control measure in which people work with the environment to
enable their plants to escape contact with pest.

References:

https://landscapeipm.tamu.edu/what-is-ipm/history-of-ipm/
www.beyongpesticides.org
Integrated pest management: a global overview of history, programs and adoption
(Rajinder Peshin et al.)

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