LEA Review

Soil Science
Unit 2
Soil Formation, Weathering and Development

http://www.agrospectrumindia.com/opinion/101/46/the-know-how-of-soil-fertility.html
Topic Outline
Minerals
Types of minerals
Properties of soil forming rocks
Rocks
Classes of rocks
Rock cycle
Weathering and soil formation
Weathering
Soil development
Factors of soil formation
Soil profile
 Mineral

 A compound that is composed of the

combination of one or more elements
found in the earth’s crust.

 Is a naturally occurring inorganic

substance with fairly definite chemical
composition and specific physical
properties.
 Minerals

Classification based on origin:

1. Original or Primary minerals

Are minerals that persist from the original rocks

and appear prominently in the soil.

2. Secondary minerals

Are minerals which originate from the chemical

weathering of the less resistant primary minerals.
 Primary minerals:
1. Quartz (SiO2)

It is the most abundant of the original minerals

occurring in the soil. It makes up about 13% of the
earth’s crust and from 30-40% of the average soil.
It contributes no plant nutrients to the soil. It is
colorless in pure state and has a hardness of 7.0.
It is insoluble in water,
slightly soluble in alkaline
solutions and is very
resistant to chemical
weathering.
Primary minerals:
2. Feldspars (AlSiO)

They are aluminosilicates containing appreciable

quantities of potassium, sodium and/or calcium.
They form clay minerals, upon weathering.

Orthoclase feldspar Plagioclase feldspar

 Types of Feldspar
a) Orthoclase feldspars (KAlSi3O8)
This is an important source of potassium (K) in soils, its color
ranges from flesh-red, pink gray to white. Its hardness is 6.0
in the presence of water and carbon dioxide. It is commonly
considered to weather into a clay mineral or some kind with
the liberation of K as K2CO3.
hydrolysis
KAlSi3O8 + H2O KOH + HAlSi3O8
Clay precursor
2KOH + H2CO3 2H2O + K2CO3

b) Plagioclase feldspars
Albite – NaAlSiO8 Anorthite – CaAl2Si2O8
 Primary minerals:

3. Mica group
These minerals are complex potassium
aluminosilicates which often contain iron and
magnesium. The two most micas are:

Muscovite mica Biotite mica

Types of Mica

a) Muscovite H2KAl3(SiO4)3

It is a white mica which is an important source

of potassium and silicate clays. It is very soft
(2-2.5).

b) Biotite H2K(MgFe)3Al(Si4)3

It is a black mica which contains iron,

magnesium and potassium and a source of
silicate clays.
 Primary minerals:
4. Amphibole-Pyroxene group
These are silicates of iron, calcium and
magnesium. They have hardness of 5-6.

a) Hornblende H2Ca2Na(Mg,Fe)4(AlFeTi)3SiO6
It is a black colored amphibole
with distinct cleavage.

b) Augite Ca(Mg,Fe,Al,)(Al,Si)2O6

It is a dull green pyroxene with

distinct cleavage.
 Primary minerals:

5. Apatite

It is the most common

primary mineral-carrier
of phosphorus.

a) Carbonatoapatite – Ca10CO3(PO4)6
b) Sulfatoapatite – Ca10SO4(PO4)6
c) Hydroxyapatite – Ca10(OH)2(PO4)6
d) Chloroapatite – Ca10Cl2(PO4)6
d) Flouroapatite – Ca10F2(PO4)6
 Primary minerals:

6. Carbonate group

It is a group of primary
minerals made up of
carbonate of calcium and
magnesium found in
limestone and marble.

a) Calcite – CaCO3

b) Dolomite – CaMg(CO3)2
 Secondary minerals:

1. Iron group
This group consists largely of the oxides of iron
in several hydration states.

a) Limonite (2Fe2O3.3H2O)
Its color varies from brown through
black and gives a yellow – brown
streak.
b) Hematite (Fe2O3)
It is known as “paintrock” or red ochre
and is a source of hydroxide of clays, iron
and color of soils.
 Secondary minerals:

2. Aluminum group
This group consists of the oxides of aluminum in
several states of hydration.

a) Boehmite - AlOOH
b) Gibbsite – Al(OH)3

3. Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
This mineral has a hardness of 2.0
and is a source of calcium and sulfur.
 Secondary minerals:

4. Clay group

This is a group of finely divided minerals found

from the weathering products of certain primary
minerals. They are essentially hydrated
aluminum silicates and are highly colloidal.

a) Hydrous mica group – 1) Illite

Clay groups:
b) Kaolin group
1) Kaolinite – Al4Si4O10(OH)8
2) Nacrite
3) Dickite
4) Anauxite

c) Montmorillonite group
1) Montmorillonite – Al4Si8O20(OH)4
2) Beidellite
3) Vermiculite
4) Nontronite
 Rocks

 The material that forms the essential part of

the earth’s solid crust, including loose
incoherent masses such as sand and gravel as
well as solid masses of granite and limestone.
It is the origin of soil. It is made up of several
minerals.

 Are aggregate of one or more minerals

1. Igneous rocks

2. Sedimentary rocks

3. Metamorphic rocks

Three Classes of Rocks

 Igneous Rock

They comprise approximately 95% of the

earth’s crust. These rocks are crystallized from a
silicate melt called the magma which is
principally made up of O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Na
and K. The magma also contains appreciable
amount of H2O, CO2 and gaseous component
like H2S, HCl, CH4 and Co.

Processes: Remelting and Recrystallization

 Magma – the melt, with or without suspended
crystals and gas bubbles

Lava – magma extruded onto the surface

either beneath water or air

When lava cools very quickly, no crystals form

and the rock looks shiny and glasslike. Sometimes
gas bubbles are trapped in the rock during the
cooling process, leaving tiny holes and spaces in
the rock.
1. Occurrence
Refers to the location where the lava cooled
off.
2. Texture
Refers to the size, shape and arrangement
of the constituent minerals. Closely related
to cooling history.

3. Composition
Refers to the amount of the different mineral
present.

Classification of Igneous Rock

 Classes based on the mode of occurrence:

1. Extrusive igneous rocks

-- are igneous rocks that formed from lava that

cool at the surface of the soil.
-- example is basalt

2. Intrusive igneous rock or plutonic rocks

-- are the result of crystallization from magma that
did not reach the earth surface.
-- example is granite
 Classes based on texture:

1. Fine-grained igneous rocks

-- are rocks with fine grains and which are formed
from lava that cool rapidly and are extrusive in
their mode of occurrence.
Examples: Rhyolite, Trachyte, Dacite, Andesite, Basalt

2. Course-grained igneous rocks

-- are rocks with large grains and are formed from
lava that cool slowly and are intrusive in their
mode of occurrence.
Examples: Granite, Syenite, Monzonite, Gabbro, Diorite
 Classes based on their composition:
1. Acidic igneous rocks
-- are rocks that contain more than 65% SiO2. They
are relatively rich in quarts and develop less fertile soil.
Examples: Rhyolite, Granite

2. Basic igneous rocks

-- are rocks that contain less than 50% SiO2
Examples: Basalt, Gabbro

3. Neutral igneous rocks

-- are rocks that contain 50-65% SiO2
Examples: Andesite, Dacite
Classes based on their composition:

1. Light colored igneous rocks

-- Igneous rocks which contain mineral rich in Al,
K, Silica and Na
Examples: Granite, Syenite

2. Dark colored igneous rocks

-- Igneous rocks that contain high Ca, Fe and Mg.
Examples: Gabbro
Rock Key:
 Igneous Rocks:

Rhyolite
Dacite Andesite Basalt

Granite Diorite Gabbro Syenite

Pumice Scoria
 Sedimentary Rock
Derived from weathering of some previously existing
rocks.
Transported, fragmented and deposited in areas of
accumulation by the action of water and wind.
Such loose deposits (sediments) are converted into
rocks by the process of lithification and diageneses
which include: compaction, dehydration,
cementation and recrystallization.
Generally, sedimentary rock is fairly soft and may
break apart or crumble easily. You can often see
sand, pebbles, or stones in the rock, and it is usually
the only type that contains fossils.
 Diagenesis
 The change of sediments or existing sedimentary rock
into a different sedimentary rock during and after rock
formation (lithification), at temperatures and pressures
less than that required for the formation
of metamorphic rocks.
 It does not include changes from weathering.
 It is any chemical, physical, or biological change
undergone by a sediment after its initial deposition,
after its lithification.
diagnesis
SR a SR b
 Three classes of sedimentary rocks:

1. Clastic sediments

This are products of mechanical accumulation of

individual grains made up of broken and worn
fragments and older minerals, rock particles or
shells deposited from water, wind, ice and then
cemented or compacted.

Sand sediments sandstone

Silt sediments siltstone
Clay sediments shale or mudstone
Clastic Sedimentary Rock:
Rock Fragment Type
Breccia Coarse Fragments of Angular Gravel and
Rocks
Conglomerate Coarse Fragments of Rounded Gravel and
Rocks
Sandstone Sand Sized Particles that are 90% Quartz
Arkose Sandstone composed of 25% Feldspar Grains
Shale Clay Particles
Siltstone Silt Particles
Mudstone Mixture of Clay and Silt
 Arkose
Breccia

Shale

Conglomerate
 Three classes of sedimentary rocks:

2. Chemical sediments
Are products of chemical precipitation
from solutions.
Examples: dolomite, limestone, chert

3. Organic sediments
Derived from plants and animal residues.
Examples: coal, lignite, petrified wood
Chemical Sedimentary Rock:
Name of Rock Precipitate Type
Halite Sodium and Chlorine

Gypsum Calcium, Sulfur, and Oxygen

Silcretes Silica

Ferricretes Iron

Limestone Calcium Carbonate

Dolomite Calcium Magnesium Carbonate

Rock Key:
 Sedimentary Rocks: Chert

Siltstone
Sandstone

Dolomite Breccia Shale/ Mudstone Conglomerate

Chalk Limestone Rocksalt

Coal
 Metamorphic Rock

Derived from pre-existing rocks (igneous or

sedimentary) by mineralogical, textural and
structural changes.

Metamorphism – the process of the change

(parent rocks to a new form) that includes increase
in temperature, pressure and the addition of active
mixture of hot gases and solution.

– “change in form”
 Metamorphic Rock

Parent Rocks Metamorphic Rocks

Shale Slate Schists
Limestone Marble
Sandstone Quartzite
Granite Gneiss
 Shale Slate Schist

Granite Gneiss

Marble
Limestone
Rock Key:
The Rock Cycle
 IGNEOUS ROCK

SEDIMENTARY ROCK METAMORPHIC ROCK

Lithification & diagnesis

Metamorphism
How does the climate influence
the weathering of rock?

Have you ever

considered how rock
becomes soil?
 Weathering
A process whereby rock and minerals are
physically and chemically disintegrated and
decomposed to produce the earth’s crust
including soil.

Is basically a combination of destruction

and synthesis.
 The processes involved in weathering:
Biological
Thermal
(internal
stress) Erosion &
Physical deposition
(wind,water,ice)
Mechanical
external agent
Plant & animal
Weathering influence

Oxidation Hydrolysis

Water & its

Chemical solution
Hydration

Carbonation Dissolution
1. Silicate clays

2. The very resistant end products

including iron and aluminum
oxides

The new minerals that are formed:

 Two processes involved in the change
A. Physical weathering (destruction)
 Disintegration of rocks and minerals into smaller
rock fragments.
 Decrease in size of rocks and minerals without
appreciably affecting their chemical composition.

B. Chemical weathering (synthesis)

 Changes in chemical composition of the rock.
 Release of soluble materials and formation of new
minerals.
Feldspar + water -> clay mineral + soluble cations and anions
A. Physical Weathering

Involves:
1) Mechanical disintegration

Action of some external agents;

a) erosion and deposition of water,
ice and wind,
b) plant and animal influences.

• Freeze-thaw occurs when water

continually seeps into cracks, freezes
and expands, eventually breaking the
rock apart.
 Mechanical disintegration
Erosion and deposition are brought about by the
following influences:

a) Influence of water

Rain water beats down upon the land and then

travels oceanward, continually shifting, sorting and
reworking unconsolidated materials of all kinds.
When loaded with such sediments, water has a
tremendous cutting power amply demonstrated by
ravines and valleys.
b) Influence of ice
Ice is an erosive transporting agent of
tremendous capacity and next to water is perhaps
the most important and spectacular physical
agent of weathering.
c ) Influence of wind
Wind has always been an important carrying
agent and when armed with fine debris exerts an
abrasive action.
Living organisms contribute to the weathering
process in many ways:

d) Influence of plants

Trees put down roots

through joints or cracks in
the rock in order to find
moisture.
Many animals, such as these
Piddock shells, bore into rocks for
protection either by scraping away
the grains or secreting acid to
dissolve the rock.

Even the tiniest bacteria, algae and

lichens produce chemicals that help
break down the rock on which they
live, so they can get the nutrients they
need.
A. Physical Weathering

Involves:
2) Thermal weathering
 Result from movement or stress on the rock surface.
 Variations of temperature, especially if sudden or wide
greatly influence the disintegration of rocks.
 Rocks are aggregate of minerals that differ in their
coefficients of expansion when heated.
 Peeling of the rock surface (exfoliation)
Where does it occur?
Physical weathering happens
especially in places where
there is little soil and few plants
grow, such as in mountain
regions and hot deserts.

How does it occur?

Either through repeated
melting and freezing of water
or through expansion and
contraction of the surface layer
of rocks that are baked by the
sun (hot deserts).
 B. Chemical Weathering

Involves:

1) Action of water and its solution through

a. Hydrolysis – any decomposition which

involves the addition of water

hydrolysis
KAlSi3O8 + H2O HAlSi3O8 + K + OH-
(solid) (liquid) (solid) (solution)
Clay precursor
 B. Chemical Weathering

Involves:

b. Hydration – association of water molecules

with other molecules or union of water
molecules with other molecules.

hydration
2Fe2O3 + 3H2O 2Fe2O3.H2O
(hematite) (limonite)
 B. Chemical Weathering

Involves:

c. Dissolution – the act or state of dissolving,

separating or breaking into elements by the
solvent action of water.

CaSO4 + 2H2O Ca2+ + SO42- + 4H2O

(Gypsum) (soluble substance)
(solid)
 B. Chemical Weathering

Involves:
2) Reaction in acid solution

a. Carbonation – weathering is accelerated by

the presence of the hydrogen ion in percolating
water such as that contained carbonic acid.

CaCO3 + H2CO3 Ca2+ + 2HCO3-

(Calcium (carbonic acid) (bicarbonate
carbonate) solution)
 B. Chemical Weathering
Involves:
b. Oxidation-Reduction Reaction
 Oxidation - the process of addition and
combination of oxygen to minerals.
 The absorption is usually from O2 dissolved in soil
water and that present in atmosphere.
 It is particularly manifested in rocks carrying iron,
an element that is easily oxidized.

4FeO + O2 2Fe2O3
(Ferrous oxide) (Ferric oxide)
 B. Chemical Weathering

Involves:
 Reduction - the process of removal of oxygen and is
the reverse of oxidation
 Ferric iron is converted to ferrous iron compounds.
 Under conditions of excess water or water logged
condition (less or no oxygen), reduction takes place.

2Fe2O3 (Hematite) – O2 4FeO

(Ferric oxide) (Ferrous oxide)
-reduced form
b. Oxidation-Reduction reaction:

 Removal of O2
 Gain of electron (e-)
 Decrease in oxidation
number or valence
 Increase in size

 Addition of O2
 Loss of electron (e-)
 Increase in oxidation
number or valence
 Decrease in size
 Weathering
Figure 3. A conceptual diagram showing how weathering breaks down rocks and
minerals; eventually, soil formation begins in place. Erosion or mass wasting involves
removal of particles offsite. Note: One, two or all three processes can be present to
weather rock depending on the environment. Image courtesy of UNL, 2005
 Factors affecting weathering of rocks and minerals

A) Climatic conditions (temperature and rainfall)

B) Physical characteristics

C) Chemical and Structural characteristics

• Rainfall and temperature can affect the rate in which
rocks weather

•High temperatures and greater rainfall increase the rate

of chemical weathering.
• Rocks in tropical regions exposed to abundant rainfall
and hot temperatures weather much faster than similar
rocks residing in cold, dry regions.

Climatic Conditions
1) Particle size

In rocks, large crystals of different minerals

encourage disintegration, since there are some
variation in the amount of expansion and
contraction occurring with each mineral as
temperature change.

Physical Characteristics
2) Hardness and cementation

A dense quartzite or sandstone cemented firmly

by a slowly weathered mineral resists mechanical
breakdown and present a small amount of total
surface area for chemical activity.

Porous rocks such as volcanic ash or coarse

limestone are readily broken down into small
particles have large surface area for chemical attack.

Physical Characteristics
3. Mineralogy and structure of a rock
Mafic silicates like olivine and pyroxene tend to
weather much faster than felsic minerals like
quartz and feldspar.
Massive rocks like granite generally do not
contain planes of weakness whereas layered
sedimentary rocks have bedding planes that can
be easily pulled apart and infiltrated by water.
Weathering therefore occurs more slowly in
granite than in layered sedimentary rocks.

Chemical and Structural Characteristics

3. Mineralogy and structure of a rock

Chemical and Structural Characteristics

 The dark colored minerals are called
ferromagnesium because of their iron and
magnesium contents are more susceptible
to weathering than feldspar and quartz.

Chemical and Structural Characteristics

4. Degree of solubility in water
Some minerals dissolve much more readily
than others. Water dissolves calcite more
readily than it does feldspar.

5. Packing of the ions in the crystal unit of

minerals
Olivine and biotite that are easily weathered
have crystal units less tightly packed than
muscovite.

Chemical and Structural Characteristics

The order of resistance to weathering is shown
below:

Quartz > Muscovite and K Feldspar > Na and

Ca Feldspar > Biotite , Hornblende, Augite >
Olivine > Dolomite > Calcite > Gypsum

Chemical and Structural Characteristics

 Very slowly Resistant
weathered minerals. Continued mineral (e.g.
(e.g. Quartz, disintegration decrease Quartz)
muscovite) in size
Disintegration Synthesized
Slowly weathered Alteration
Into minerals mineral (e.g.
minerals. (Chemical & Silicate clays)
(e.g. Feldspar, physical)
biotite) Other silicate
Decomposition &
Easily weathered recombination clays
minerals.
ROCKS (e.g. Augite,
(Igneous, hornblende, olivine,
sedimentary, calcite)
metamorphi
Decomposition,
c)
Oxidation & Hydration Resistant decay
products (e.g.
Decomposition Oxides of Fe&Al
Organic acid
(Chemical
Solution solution
reactions) Organic complexes
of Al3+&Fe3+
Hydrolysis
Silicic acid

Weathering Pathways Solution Soluble materials (e.g.

Ca2+,K+,Mg2+,Fe2+,SO42
-
 Pre-Test Questions

1. These are aggregate of one or more minerals.

a. Primary Minerals
b. Secondary Minerals
c. Rocks
d. Minerals
 Pre-Test Questions

2. It is a process by which a parent rock undergo some

changes at increasing temperature and pressure to form a
new rock.
a. Diagenesis
b. Lithification
c. Recrystallization
d. Metamorphism
 Pre-Test Questions

3. This mineral is an important source of potassium in the soil

a. Feldspar
b. Plagioclase feldspar
c. Orthoclase feldspar
d. Albite
 Pre-Test Questions

4. Dark-colored mineral are more susceptible to weathering

due to these elements.
a. Si and O
b. Ca and K
c. Fe and Mg
d. Na and Mn
 Pre-Test Questions

5. Which of the following mineral would weather relatively

faster?
a. Quartz
b. Muscovite
c. Biotite
d. Orthoclase feldspar
 Pre-Test Questions

6. A process involving the release of P and synthesis of new

silicate clay minerals from apatite.
a. Metamorphism
b. Sedimentation
c. Lithification
d. Weathering
 Pre-Test Questions

7. It is the form of Iron in lowland soils?

a. Fe 3+
b. Fe 2+
c. Ferric oxide
d. a and c
 Pre-Test Questions

8. Gypsum is an important source of Ca and S, two essential

plant nutrients. To release both element from gypsum, it must
undergo what process
a. Hydrolysis
b. Hydration
c. Dissolution
d. Carbonation
 Pre-Test Questions

9. Which of the following metamorphic rock would require

high temperature and pressure to form?
a. Marble
b. Schist
c. Quartzite
d. Gneiss
 Pre-Test Questions
10. Under similar condition, which of the following mineral will
increase the soil pH relatively faster?
a. Calcite
b. Gypsum
c. Dolomite
d. Ca feldspar

Quartz > Muscovite and K Feldspar > Na and Ca Feldspar > Biotite ,
Hornblende, Augite > Olivine > Dolomite > Calcite > Gypsum
Break
 Soil Forming Processes

Processes of soil formation are complex sequences of

weathering including physical, chemical and
biological events or reactions that function singly or
in combination to produce a soil.
These processes intimately affect or modify the
properties of soil on which they operate.
 Pedogenic Approach

Grouped into:

a) Weathering

b) Horizon differentiation
or horizon formation

The first step in soil formation is the

accumulation or development of parent or
parent material.
Is the unconsolidated and more or
less chemically weathered mineral
or organic matter from which the
solum of soils is developed by
pedogenic processes.

Parent Material
 Two groups of inorganic parent materials:

1) Residual/Sedentary materials
– are those that are formed in place

2) Transported materials
- moved from one place to another
- loose sediments that have been transported
and deposited by gravity, water, ice, or wind.
These materials are classified on the basis of
the agents responsible for their movement and
deposition.
 Parent Material: Sub-divisions based on
transportation/decomposition

1.) Alluvial stream deposits

These are classified into:

a) Flood plains or fluvial deposits

- results in lagoons that are ideal for further
depositing of alluvial matter and
development of swamps
 Parent Material: Sub-divisions based on
transportation/decomposition

b) Alluvial fans
– materials are gravelly and
stony, porous and well drained.

c) Delta deposits
– finer sediments carried by streams
that is not deposited in the flood plain
- often a continuation of flood plain
 Parent Material: Sub-divisions based on
transportation/decomposition

2.) Wind or aeolian deposits

a) Loess is a pale yellowish clay

or loam forming deposits by the
action of wind along river valleys.

b) Sand dunes are other

aeolian deposits from volcanic
ash formed a hill of loose sand
heaped by the wind.
 Parent Material: Sub-divisions based on
transportation/decomposition

3.) Marine sediments

These are materials deposited in
oceans, seas and gulfs.

4.) Colluvial deposits

These are materials deposited through
gravity.

5.) Glacial deposits

These are materials deposited through
ice action.
Types of transported parent material and associated modes of
transportation and deposition
Mode of
Resulting Parent Material
Transport
•Alluvial or fluvial (deposited from flowing water)
Water •Lacustrine (sediments in still water, especially lakes)
•Marine (deposited in oceans or re-worked by oceans)
•Glacial-fluvial (sediments deposited by glacial meltwater in
a floodplain environment)
Water
•Glacial-lacustrine (sediments deposited by glacial
and
meltwater in lake environment)
Ice
•Glacial-marine (sediments deposited by glacial metlwater in
an ocean environment)
Ice •Till (sediment deposited directly by glacial ice)
•Loess (sediment composed primarily of silt-sized particles)
•Volcanic tephra (sediment composed of volcanic erecta in
Wind a range of particle sizes)
•Eolian sand (sediment composed primarily of sand-sized
particles)
•Colluvium (sediments found on steep slopes derived from
Gravity
local sources)
 Agent of Sediments/deposits
transportation
1. Rivers/streams Alluvial
2. Oceans Marine
3. Lakes Lacustrine
4. Ice Glacial
5. Wind Aeolian
6. Gravity Colluvial

Parent Material
 Soil Formation

Weathering

• Destroys or modifies the chemical and

physical characteristics of rocks and minerals
(bedrock) to produce the parent materials.

• Continues to operate at various stages of

soil development
 Soil Formation
Horizon Formation

• Caused by weathering and with stages of

soil development.

• Differentiation in a horizon of a soil profile is

produced by the combination of four basic
mechanisms.
• Changes in color, structure, texture,
consistence, porosity and other properties
occur in all horizons but the same changes do
not take place in each horizon.
 Four basic kinds of changes involved
in horizon differentiation:

1) Additions or gains to the soil

2) Losses or removals from soil body

3) Translocation or transfer within the soil body

4) Transformation within the soil body

 Common materials that are subject
to the four basic mechanisms:

1) Organic matter

2) Soluble salts (carbonates)

3) Water

4) Oxides of Fe and Al

5) Silicate clays
 Role of organic matter in
horizon differentiation

Most plant residues added to A or surface

horizon by the growth of plants in one
cropping season will decay in the next season.
Since fresh supply is added periodically,
organic matter in soil can be found in all
stages of decomposition.
 Role of organic matter in
horizon differentiation

Humus, a relatively stable product of

decomposition has direct effects on color,
structure and consistence of soil horizons.

Other products of decomposition such as organic acids

react with minerals. Consequently, the breakdown of
minerals is hastened and the sesquioxide are
dissolved and mobilized.
 Role of water in horizon differentiation

Leaching and eluviation of soil materials are

respectively the common processes of losses
and translocation mechanisms involved in
horizon differentiation. For them to occur,
water must move through the soil profile.
 Role of water in horizon differentiation

Water comes from the rain which first enters

the A horizon. It reacts with carbon dioxide
to form carbonic acid which in turn reacts
with soil forming minerals facilitating the
decomposition and the dissolution of the
water.
Factors affecting soil formation
 Factors affecting soil formation

1. Climate (particularly temperature and

precipitation)

2. Living organisms (especially native vegetation,

microbes, soil animals, and human beings)

3. Nature of parent material

4. Topography of the site
5. Time that parent materials are subjected to soil
formation
 SOIL

“dynamic natural bodies having properties

derived from the combined effect of climate
and biotic activities, as modified by
topography, acting on parent materials over
periods of time”
 Soil Forming Factor Equation

Dokuchaev (1846-1903), a Russian pedologist, is

given the credit for having been the first to publish a
soil forming factor equation which is as follows:

S = f (cl, o, r, p, t...)
Where, S represents the soil, cl for climate in a given
period, o for the organisms, r for relief or topography
(including hydrologic features such as water table), p
for parent material, t for time or relative age of the
soil and ... For additional unspecified factors. The
latter my include man.
 Climate
• perhaps the most influential of the factors because it
determines the nature of the weathering that occurs.

• temperature and precipitation affect the rates of

chemical, physical and biological processes
responsible for profile development.

• biochemical changes by soil organisms are sensitive

to temperature as well as moisture, for every 10oC rise
in temperature, the rates of biochemical reaction
double.

• weathering is attained where both precipitation and

temperature are high, like in tropical areas.
Rainfall

Affects the movement of leaching of

elements and other weathering products. It is
necessary for the growth of plants and
organisms that contribute organic material to
the soil. It plays a major role in the deposition
or erosion of soil materials.

Climate
Temperature

Increase in temperature results in the

increased rate of weathering. It also encourages
organic residue decomposition, hence, it
influences organic matter accumulation.

Indirectly, climate affects soil formation,

through its control over the kinds of vegetation
and animals that dominate in the region.

Climate
 Organisms
Include plants, animals, human beings and microbial life.

• play a major role in profile differentiation. Organic

matter accumulation, profile mixing, nutrient cycling,
porosity and structural stability are all enhanced by the
activities of organisms in the soil.

• acids released from the decomposition of organic

debris encourage the breakdown of base-containing
materials. This breakdown releases soluble nutrients
and secondary minerals such as silicate clays and the
oxides of iron and aluminum.
 Organisms

• Rodents (burrowing), earthworms, insects, etc.

are soil mixers. The process of mixing by the
animals is called pedoturbation or bioturbation.

• Human activities can also significantly influence

soil formation. Destroying the natural vegetation
and subsequently tilling the soil for crop production
abruptly modifies the soil-forming factors.
 Parent Material
• formed from the weathering of rocks and minerals.
It is the first step in soil formation.

• the various classes of rocks may serve as sources

of soil parent material. Since they differ in
composition, texture and origin, the resulting soils
would also differ in characteristics.

• the influence of parent material on the properties of

the soil produced is evident when the soil is
relatively young.
Parent Material
Limestone:
Texture – fine
Soil pH – high
Fertility - high

Sandstone:
Texture – coarse
Soil pH – low
Fertility - low
 Topography
• Relates to the configuration of the land
surface and is described in terms of difference
in elevation, slope, shape or contour of the
land surface and so on.

• influences soil formation by its effects on

moisture regime and degree of erosion by
water runoff

• also influences drainage, organic matter

accumulation and profile development
 Topography
Develop horizons the fastest

Translocation of soil

Soil develop slower/ more

erosion/ less leaching

Zone of accumulation/ burry

horizon/slow down soil
development

• there is more runoff and less percolation on the

steep slopes than on the level or nearly level ones.

• rolling to hilly topography encourages natural

erosion of the surface layers, which reduces the
possibility of a deep soil.
 Time

• refers to the active length that materials have

been subjected to the forces of weathering.

“How much time is required to form an inch of a

soil or for a soil to develop?” lies partly in the
knowledge of the nature of the materials from
which the soil is developed.

Fact: 10 cm of soil = 2 Millennia to be developed

 Effects of climate
on soil development:

1. Rainfall and temperature affect

weathering, O.M. production and the
O.M. decomposition.

2. The higher the temperature and

rainfall, the faster is the rate of
weathering, hence, the faster is soil
development.
 Effects of vegetation
on soil development:

1. Minimizes water run off

2. Provides more water for soil

formation

3. Limits subsequent destruction of soil

profile by erosion
 Effects of topography
on soil development:

1. Soils on steep slopes tend to have

thinner solum, less O.M. content and
less conspicuous horizons.
- Due to frequent removal of soil
surface
2. Soils at low topographic position
generally have thicker solum and more
conspicuous horizons.
- Due to accumulation of materials
from higher topographic positions
 Effects of drainage
on soil development:

1. In areas with good drainage, well-

aerated, oxidized soils with bright
colored B horizons and low O.M.
contents are produced.

2. In areas with poor drainage, soils will

tend to have dark gray B horizons and
high O.M. contents in the A horizon.
Soil groups based
on the factors of Soil Formation:

1) Catena/s
- Soils are developed on the same parent
material
- Soils only differ on drainage due to
variations in relief

2) Chronosequence
- Sequence of related soils that differ in
certain properties primarily as a result of
time as a soil-forming process
Soil groups based
on the factors of Soil Formation:

3) Lithosequence
- Group of related soils that differ in parent
material

4) Climosequence
- Sequence of soils that differ due to
changes in climate

5) Biosequence
- Soils that differ due to variations of
organisms
 Development sequence of a tropical soil

A A
A
A
B
B B

C C

C C
D
Young soil Immature Mature soil Old soil
soil
 Development sequence of a tropical soil

Young soil

Characterized by organic matter

accumulation in the surface soil and by little
weathering, leaching or translocation. Only
the A and C horizons are present and soil
properties to a large extent have been
inherited from the parent materials.
 Development sequence of a tropical soil

Mature soil
Characterized by moderate clay accumulation
in the B horizon and the solum (A and B
horizons) is acid.

Old soil
Characterized as strongly acidic and severely
weathered soil and has less organic matter
with subdivisions in major horizons.
 Soil Profile

A vertical section of the earth’s crust from the surface

through all its horizons down into the loose weathered
rock material.
 Pedon

Pedon is the smallest volume that can be recognized as soil

individual with an area of one to ten square meter.
 Soil Profile vs Pedon
Pedon is a 3-D structure that contain all the
properties of the studied soil while a soil
profile could be one of the vertical face of a
pedon.
Theoretical
Mineral
Soil
Profile
Soil monolith – sample of soil profile mounted for soil display.
 Soil Horizon

A layer of soil approximately parallel to the soil surface,

differing in properties and characteristics from adjacent
layers below or above it.
 The master horizons and layers

O Horizon (organic)
Comprised of organic horizons that form above the
mineral soil. They result from litter derived from
dead plants and animals. O horizons usually occur
in forested areas and are generally absent in
grassland regions.
A Horizon
The topmost mineral horizon. It contain a strong
mixture of partially decomposed (humified) organic
matter, which tends to impart a darker color than
that of the lower horizons.
 The master horizons and layers

E Horizon
Zone of maximum leaching or eluviation (from
Latin e, out, and lavere, to wash) of clay, iron and
aluminum oxides, which leaves a concentration of
resistant minerals, such as quartz, in the sand and
silt sizes. Generally lighter in color than the A
horizon and is found under the A horizon.

B Horizon (illuvial)
Commonly called the subsoil. Include layers in
which illuviation (from Latin il, in, and lavere, to
wash) of materials has taken place from above and
even from below.
 The master horizons and layers

C Horizon
The parent material or partly decomposed
(weathered) rocks. Is the unconsolidated material
underlying the solum (A and B). From this layer,
the true soil is derived.

R Horizon
Underlying consolidated rock, with little evidence of
weathering such as granite, sandstone or
limestone.
 Definition of Terms:

Furrow slice
The uppermost layer of an arable soil to the depth of
primary tillage. The layer of soil sliced away from the
rest of the profile and inverted by the moldboard plow.
Surface soil
The uppermost part of the soil, ordinarily moved in
tillage, or its equivalent in uncultivated soils. It ranges
in depth from 7 to 25cm and frequently designated as
the plow layer.
Sub-soil
The part of the soil below the plow layer.
Solum (plural, sola)
The upper and most weathered part of the soil profile,
the A and B horizons.
Definition of Terms:

Regolith
Unconsolidated mantle of weathered rock and soil
material of the earth’s surface; loose earth material
above the solid rock. It is composed of the A, B and C
horizons.
Eluviation
Removal of soil material in suspension from a layer or
layers of a soil.
Illuviation
Deposition of materials carried from an overlying layer.
Leaching
Removal of materials in solution from the soil.
1. A vertical section of the earth’s crust from the surface
through all its horizons down into the loose weathered
rock material.
a. Soil horizon
b. Soil profile
c. Solum
d. Pedon
2. The uppermost part of the soil, ordinarily moved in tillage,
or its equivalent in uncultivated soils.
a. Surface soil
b. Subsoil
c. E horizon
d. A and C
3. It is where leached materials from the overlying horizon
accumulated.
a. Zone of eluviation
b. Zone of illuviation
c. A Horizon
d. O horizon
4. It is a three-dimensional structure that contain all the properties of the
studied soil.
a. Soil profile
b. Monolith
c. Pedon
d. Soil horizon
5. The uppermost mineral horizon with significantly higher
amount of organic matter.
a. O horizon
b. A Horizon
c. B horizon
d. C horizon
6. The upper and most weathered part of the soil profile, the
A and B horizons.
a. Surface soil
b. Subsoil
c. Solum
d. Plow layer
7. A relatively stable product of decomposition with direct
effects on color, structure and consistence of soil horizons
a. Organic matter
b. Lignin
c. Humus
d. Cellulose
8. A soil whose parent materials were carried and deposited
in moving fresh water to form sediments is called
a. Residual soil
b. Transported soil
c. Alluvial soil
d. Subsoil
9. Five factors govern the soil development process are,
except one:
a. Parent material
b. Weathering
c. Climate
d. Topography
e. Time
10. Parent material deposited more simply by sliding or rolling
down a slope. This material is scattered in hilly or
mountainous areas is called
a. Lacustrine
b. Colluvium
c. Eolian
d. Alluvium
e. Residual
11. This soil is characterized as strongly acidic and severely
weathered with less organic matter with subdivisions in major
horizons
a. Young soil
b. Immature soil
c. Mature soil
d. Old soil
12. An organic layer made up of advanced and partially
decayed plant and animal debris.
a. O horizon
b. A horizon
c. B horizon
d. C horizon
13. A part of the soil profile where most plant roots grow and
it is consist of A, E, and B horizons.
a. Soil horizon
b. Pedon
c. Alluvial
d. Solum
14. This factor in the soil developments process affect soil formation by
changing water movement and soil temperature which resulted to
deep and rich soil in low lying areas while causes erosion in slopes.
a. Parent material
b. Topography
c. Weathering
d. Time
e. Climate
15. Most mineral soils come form parent materials moved
from one area to another by, except one:
a. Ice
b. Water
c. Gravity
d. Wind
e. Temperature