GOOD

AFTERNOO
N
 WEEDS
DR. AURORA F. PIÑON
I. WEED SCIENCE DEFINED:
Weed Science is the study of weeds and
their control.

Itis an off-shoot of plant physiology

having evolved from the study of plant
growth regulators.

Itsmain goal is the formulation of most

effective, economical, and satisfactory
methods of controlling weeds.
II. CONCEPT OF A WEED
 Weeds are important component of the agro
ecosystem. They are important factors in the
management of land and water resources and their
economic impact is greatest in agriculture.
 Weeds always grow with the crops. They often
dictate many of the crop production practices and
management decisions in growing crops.
 Most people define a weed as an unwanted,
undesirable or useless plants. Without any further
qualification this definition is too condemning and
no plant deserves such a harass treatment. No
plant is completely useless at any one time.
VARIOUS AUTHORS DEFINED A WEED AS:

A plant growing where it is not wanted

 A plant whose potentialities for harm far outweighs

its potentialities for good

 A plant whose virtues have not been discovered
 A plant or plant part interfering with the objectives

of man in a specific situation.

 A misfit
A more realistic definition may be a weed is a
plant unwanted at a particular time and place.
The reason for its unwantedness can be due to
the fact that it can do more harm than good
under such particular time and place.
 Whether a plant is considered a weed
depends not only on its characteristics and
habits but also on its relative position with
reference to other plants and man.
 A plant to be classified as a weed must impair

man's activity. Any plant for that matter

therefore, can be considered a weed.
 A rice plant in an onion field is a weed.

Bermuda grass in a rice field is a weed, and

rice plant in a Bermuda grass lawn is a weed.
 There is a saying that "One man's crop may
be another man's weed. Therefore, the
concept of a weed is man made.
 A species is a weed only in terms of human

attitude.
 Some species, however, occur as a weed

99% of the time, such as barnyard grass and

pickerel weed in a rice field; itchgrass in a
corn field; purple nutsedge in a vegetable
field. Of the 300,000 species of
angiosperms recorded, some 30,000 or 10%
behave as weed 99% of the time.
III. CHARACTERISTICS
 A unique characteristic of a weed is its
excellent adaptation to the disturbed
environment.
 They are able to occupy the ecological
spaces left open in those environment
altered by man for his use.
OTHER CHARACTERISTICS:

a) They have rapid vegetative growth. In

grasses, this may be manifested by fast
and numerous tiller production, in sedges,
by rapid tuber and shoot formation and
in broadleaves, by faster stem elongation
and branching. There is also rapid leaf
production which allow rapid
photosynthetic activity
b) They reproduce rapidly and mature early.
The means of reproduction can be
asexual and sexual. In annual weeds which
reproduce mainly by seeds, there is rapid
vegetative growth manifested by profuse
tillering and/or branching which
contribute to the numerous seed
production.
c) Most weeds are very prolific and produce
abundant seeds.
 Echinochloa colona seeds 42,758
 Monochoria vaginalis seeds 44,799
 Celosia argentea seeds 11,312
 Rottboellia cochinchinensis seeds 5,048
 Eleusine indica seeds 4,899
 Rottboellia cochinchinensis, for instance, can

produce more than 700 tillers and branches

which are capable of producing inflorescence.
 Mostperennial weeds reproduce rapidly
through vegetative means by tuber, rhizome,
stolon formation as in Cyperus rotundus,
Scirpus maritimus and Paspalum distichum.

 Scirpus
maritimus, a perennial sedge, can
produce more than 100 dormant and non-
dormant tubers in one cropping
d) They have the ability to survive and adapt to

adverse conditions. Some species have the

ability to germinate and grow under a wide
range of environmental conditions. They
possess mechanism to resist drought and
excessive moisture stress.

 Largecrabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis) when

exposed to extremely dry conditions forms
contractile roots and shoot growth is
arrested. When conditions become favorable
they resume their normal growth (King 1966).
 Common purslane (Portulaca oleracea)
during wet conditions, leaves and leaflets
are developed to have maximum exposure
to sunlight, during dry conditions the
leaflets are inclined upwards to reduce
exposure to sun (Went, 1954).

 Somespecies can grow under saline or

non-saline conditions with almost no
change in reproductive capacity.
e) Propagules possess dormancy or can be
induced to become dormant under
unfavorable conditions.

 Dormancy is one mechanism that enables

the species to survive under unfavorable
conditions including control operations.
Flashes of annual weed seed germination
under field conditions require more
weeding operations or more persistent
control agents.
f) Adapted to crop competition - have proper
synchronize germination, rapid
establishment and growth of seedlings, and
quick response to available moisture and
nutrient.
IV. WEEDS, CROPS AND OTHER PESTS

A) WEED VS. CROP

 Weeds - are plants that are found on land

where:
1. Man has replaced the native vegetation
with a controlled system of cropping and
management or
2. Man forcibly altered the vegetation for
other purposes
CROPS - are plants that fit economically
into the scheme of man's work and existence.

 Theyare plants that are managed to some

degree which may involve a systematic type of
harvesting or completely artificial culture
throughout the entire life of the plants, as in
greenhouse production.

Agiven plant species become a crop because

man developed it to be a crop.
B) WEEDS VS. OTHER PESTS

 Weeds like crops are plants. They grow in

association with the crop so that their main
impact is on competition. They compete with the
crop plants with the essentials of growth such as
light, water, nutrients and space. They co exist
with the crop.

Why weeds are not recognized as pest during the

early days.
1.Crop is always associated with weeds.
2.It is easier to see insect with crops than weeds.
3.Damages caused by weeds are not visible as
those caused by insects and diseases.
4.It is seldom to have a total crop failure due to
 OtherPests - are organisms apart from
plants. They generally feed or subsist on
crop plants as well as on weeds. Damage is
very apparent.

1. Pathogens are organisms which cause

diseases. They affect plants or part of the
plant at any stage of development.
2. Insect pests are six-legged invertebrates
generally hosting on crops and weeds.
They have varied form of damage on crop
and weeds.

3. Nematodes are microscopic, slender worn

like organism feeding on or within the plant
roots, stems, leaves or flowers. They feed
superficially, partially or completely
embedded in the plant tissue
V. CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDS
 Weed classification refers to the grouping
together of weeds based on their similarities
and differences. The knowledge of the
different types of weeds is essential in order
to formulate an effective control program.
 The following criteria for weed classification
have been used:

A. LIFE CYCLE
 Successful weed control, in addition to a

knowledge of the types of weeds, also

depend on the understanding of the life
cycle of the weed. Weeds that live for one
or less than one season may be controlled
by practices that are not applicable to
weeds that live for a number of seasons for
several years.
 With regards to the life span, tropical weeds are
classified into two main groups:
1. ANNUAL WEEDS - complete their life cycle in
one season and mainly reproduce by seeds.

 Examples:
Celosia - Celosia argentea
 Itchgrass - Rottboellia cochinchinensis
Small flowered umbrella plant - Cyperus difformis
Gooseweed - Sphenoclea zeylanica
Water purslane - Ludwigia octovalvis
2. PERENNIAL WEEDS - weeds that live for more
than one season for several years
reproducing vegetatively and by seeds.

a) SIMPLE PERENNIALS - reproduce only by

seeds.
 Examples:
Sida - Sida acuta
 Makahiya - Mimosa pudica
Devil weed - Chromolaena odorata
Lantana - Lantana camara
b) CREEPING PERENNIALS - reproduce by seeds
and vegetative propagules as:

1.Stolon - Bermuda - Cynodon dactylon

2.Rhizome - Johnson grass- Sorghum halepense
Cogon - Imperata cylindrica
Knot grass - Paspalum distichum
3.Tuber
 Purple nutsedge - Cyperus rotundus
 Bulrush - Scirpus maritimus
 Apulid - Eleocharis sp.
4. Off-shoots
 Water lettuce - Pistia stratiotes
 Water hyacinth - Eichhornia crassipes

 The terms annuals and perennials are generally very

appropriate for weeds growing in the temperate zone
but may have limited usefulness in the tropics. Under
certain circumstances some annuals will act as
perennials. Care should therefore be taken to make
certain that the particular weed being dealt with is an
annual or perennial under the conditions to which it is
subjected so that appropriate control measures can
be taken.
B. GROSS MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES
 Weeds and crops are generally divided into 3

main groups based on the stem and leaf

morphology

1. GRASSES - FAMILY POACEAE (GRAMINEAE)

 stem, referred to as culm, is cylindrical
 culm has well defined nodes and internodes
 leaves arise alternately in two rows
 basal part of the leaf is the leafsheath which

clasp the culm, upper part is the blade with

parallel venation.
 leaf sheaths overlap to protect the growing
shoot
 ligule, a hairy membranous outgrowth

between the
 leaf blade and leafsheath exist. It is an

important
 taxonomic feature of grasses except in the

genus Echinochloa.
 Barnyard grass - Echinochloa crusgalli
 Bermuda grass - Cynodon dactylon
 Goose grass - Eleusine indica
 Knot grass - Paspalum distichum
 Itchgrass - Rottboellia cochinchinensis
 Paspalidium - Paspalidium flavidum
 Crab grass - Digitaria sanguinalis
 Crowfoot grass - Dactyloctenium aegyptium
2. SEDGES - FAMILY CYPERACEAE
 resemble grasses having linear leaves with
 parallel venation
 culm triangular
 ligule absent
 indistinct nodes and internodes located at the

basal part of the culm.

 leaf sheaths fused to form a tube around the

culm forming rosette leaf arrangement

 Small flowered umbrella plant - Cyperus difformis
 Flat flowered umbrella plant - Cyperus iria
 Purple nutsedge - Cyperus rotundus
 Fimbristylis - Fimbristylis littoralis
3. BROADLEAVED WEEDS - are characterized
by more expanded leaves. They may be
monocots or dicots. Families commonly
represented are:

a. ASTERACEAE (COMPOSITAE) - largest family

of flowering plants.
 Tropic ageratum - Ageratum conyzoides
 Tridax - Tridax procumbens
 Little iron weed - Vernonia cinerea
b. EUPHORBIACEAE - weed with milky sap
 Garden spurge - Euphorbia hirta
 Kaliskis - Euphorbia prostrata

c. AMARANTHACEAE - with sessile, apetalous

flowers
 Spiny Amaranth - Amaranthus spinosus
 Slender amaranth - Amaranthus viridis
 Taling talingan - Celosia argentea

d. ARACEAE
 Water lettuce - Pistia stratiotes
e. PONTEDERIACEAE
 Water hyacinth - Eichhornia crassipes
 Pickerel weed - Monochoria vaginalis

f. SPHENOCLEACEAE
 Goose weed - Sphenoclea zeylanica

g. PAPILLONACEAE
 Calopgonium muconoides
 Centrosema pubescens
h. MIMOSACEAE
 Makahiya - Mimosa pudica
 Makahiya - Mimosa invisa

i. CAESALPINACEAE
 Balatong Aso - Casia tora
 Balatong Aso - Casia occidentalis
 MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION would be:

1. DICOTYLEDONOUS WEEDS - having two seed-

leaves or cotyledons. These weeds have
expanded leaf blade, netted leaf venation and
tap root system.

a) BROADLEAF WEEDS
1) Annuals -Tropic Ageratum – Ageratum
conyzoides
2) Perennials - Sapinit - Lantana camara
2. MONOCOTYLEDONOUS WEEDS - weeds
having a single seed-leaf or cotyledon,
leaves with parallel venation and have
fibrous root system.

a) BROADLEAF WEEDS
1) Annuals - Pickerel weed - Monochoria
vaginalis
2) Perennials - Water hayacinth - Eichhornia
crassipes
Water lettuce - Pistia stratiotes
b) GRASSES
1) Annuals - Jungle rice - Echinochloa colona
Itchgrass - Rottboellia cochinchinensis
2) Perennials - Johnson grass - Sorghum
halepense
Cogon - Imperata cylindrica
Bermuda grass - Cynodon dactylon
c) SEDGES
1) Annuals - Fimbristylis - Fimbristylis littoralis
Flat flower umbrella plant - Cyperus iria
Small flowered umbrella plant - Cyperus
difformis
2) Perennials - Purple nutsedge - Cyperus
rotundus
Bulrush - Scirpus maritimu

C. BODY TEXTURE- general appearance of the stem

1. HERBACEOUS - soft stem but can support the

appendages attached to it. Spiny Amaranth -
Amaranthus spinosus

2. WOODY - hard textured stem

Lantana - Lantana camara
Devil weed - Chromolaena odorata
3. VINE - soft and weak stem
Trilobed morningglory - Ipomoea triloba

D. HABIT- manner of growth

1. Erect - upright growth habit

2. Prostrate - lying flat on the ground
a. Decumbent - lying flat with ascending apex
b. Procumbent - stem trailing or lying flat but
not rooting at nodes, apex not ascending.
3. Twining - climbing or clinging for support

E. HABITAT- the environment or location

where weeds grow
1. AQUATIC - plants growing in or near water

a. Floating - plants which grow on water

surface and roots not attached to the soil
bottom.
 Water lettuce - Pistia stratiotes
 Azolla - Azolla pinnata
 Salvinia - Salvinia molesta
b. Emerged - plants which have their roots
beneath the surface of the water and leaves
above the surface and roots attached to the
soil.
 Fimbristylis - Fimbristylis littoralis
 Flat flowered umbrella plant - Cyperus iria
 Gooseweed - Sphenoclea zeylanica

c. Submerged - plants which normally have all

leaves beneath the water surface but may
have floral parts above the water.
 Hydrilla verticillata
 Ceratophylum demersum
2. TERRESTRIAL - Weeds growing on land as in
arable land,waste place, pasture/rangeland
3. AERIAL OR EPHIPHYTES- weeds growing in
air, attached to trees or other support.
 For convenience in the study of weeds and as
an aid in considering the methods of their
control, weeds may be CLASSIFIED INTO TWO
GENERAL GROUPS:

a. COMMON WEEDS - weeds that are more or

less found in every farm but are not
exceptionally injurious and are readily
controlled by ordinary good farming
practices.
b. NOXIOUS WEEDS - weeds that are particularly
undesirable, because of their certain
undesirable characteristics, like the presence
of an extensive perennial underground system
which enables to resist all the most determine
effort to control.
 Noxious weeds are persistent ,highly

competitive, difficult to control and reduce crop

yield even at low density.
 Weeds, in general, are very persistent.

Persistence is a measure of the adaptive

potential of a weed that enables it to grow in
environment disturbed by man
 Noxious weeds persist and resist control
measures. Annual weeds that produce
tremendous amounts of seeds which posses
dormancy will likely persist and endure
handweeding operations or chemical control
measures.
 Underground reproductive organs of

perennials are not easily uprooted or reached

by chemicals.
 The close morphological characteristics and
phylogenetic relationship between the crops
and the associated weed species call for
highly selective herbicides or ability to
distinguish the crop seedlings from the
weeds seedling is very essential if one has to
do handweeding.
 Recognition of weeds at the seedling stage or

early vegetative stage is difficult especially if

the crop and weeds belong to the same
family.
 Effects of Weeds on Human Affairs
Weeds have been the constant companions
of man ever since his earliest attempt to grow
crops. Weeds influence management of land
and water resources whether one is a rancher or
a backyard farmer.
 In the farm much energy and labor are utilized
to destroy weeds. Farmers spend majority of
their labors in controlling weeds, about 50 to
75% of tillage operation in crop production is
done to control weeds.
 Removing weeds manually is not an easy work.
It does not promote self-esteem. It is time
consuming and does not leave much time for
planning methods or improving production
practices.
 Many public laws have been drafted to control the spread of
weeds or destroy the established weeds. Machinery
companies have fabricated various implement designed to
control weeds while chemical companies produce numerous
herbicides.
 Many weeds are poisonous to human and livestock.
Lantana camara and Chromolaena odorata are prevalent
weeds in pasture, cause diarrhea resulting to death of
animals. Some weeds cause dermatitis or injury while
others cause hay fever or allergic reactions to man.
 Hay fever is caused by the adverse effect of protein in the
pollen of various plants, on the respiratory system of
susceptible people.
 Dermatitis is the inflammation of the skin. It is caused by
the poisonous compound present in the plant.
 No matter what we do, weeds will have an impact upon our
life. Our approach in dealing with weeds is a continuing
attempt to reduce their impacts on our food, feed or fiber
production and enjoyment of our environment.
A. Losses due to weeds
 Assessment of damage caused by any pest
is a pre- requisite in determining how
important that pest is.
 The damage, however, is not at all times
apparent and easy to see. Indirect effects
and complications brought about by the
direct effects of other pests make
assessment even more difficult.
Major losses due to weeds can be in the form
of any of the following:
 1. Reduced crop yield due to competition
for nutrients, water, light and other
environmental resources.
2. Reduced quality of the product
 Crop products
 - The protein percentage of cereal grains is reduced by
weed competition.
 - Many weeds in wheat, notably wild garlic and onion
bulblets, influence the color, flavor and texture of the
bread made from flour processed with contaminated
weed species.
 Nutsedge rhizomes can puncture potato tubers and lower
their quality.
 - There are many feeds and foods containing weeds.
Weedy hay may be rejected as a marketable product.
They have lower feed value, have molds or heat easily
because of the moisture bearing seeds.
 - Feed grains infested with moist weed seeds or debris,
 develop molds, and become unsuitable for
 livestock feed.
 - Crops contaminated with weed seeds have been the
 major source of spreading weeds throughout the world.
Animal products
 Aromatic weeds eaten by cattle give an off-flavor to

milk. Off-flavored milk is unmarketable.

 - Poultry feeding on some weed seed like dwarf mallow
can produce eggs with pink yolk.
 Wool and hides contaminated with burs and awns of weeds

have lower market value.

 Needle-shaped seed of some praire weeds attached to the

wool of sheep, may twist into the body of the animal

causing injury or death.
 Foxtail barley may become impacted in or cause abrasive

damage to the mouth of livestock.

 Other weeds may cause mechanical injury to the udders of

grazing animals which inhibits nursing by their young.

 Teratogenic effects or congenital malformations such as
cleft palate and crooked calf disease, occur in offspring
from animals grazing on poisonous plants and even cause
death.
 3. Added protection cost for other pests
A large number of weeds acts as hosts of other
microorganisms which infect crop plants and
cause diseases.
 Scirpus maritimus is attacked by Pyricularia oryzae, the
causal organism of rice blast.
 Most grasses are alternate host of green leaf and brown

plant hoppers (Nephotettix impecticeps and Nilaparvata

lugens, respectively. Green leafhopper is the insect vector
that transmit the virus that cause tungro disease and brown
plant hopper transmit virus that cause grassy stunt. In
between cropping season, these weeds act as hosts of these
insects, ensuring the insects presence in the subsequent
cropping season.
 Many insects live on weeds during certain stage of
development until crop plants are available.
 Many weeds can support many diverse type of plant
parasitic nematodes. Golden cyst nematode of
potato can use solanaceous weeds as hosts.
 Weeds also provide suitable habitat for rodents and
various fauna that are pests of crops. The presence
of weeds makes control of these other pest more
difficult and incur expense.
 This damage of weeds is still not fully realized.
Hence, idle lands during the season are often
infested with weeds and no effort is done to control
these weeds until the next cropping season.
During that time, however, the weeds have
deposited to the weed seed reserved in the soil,
considerable number of their propagules and the
insect, and disease causing organisms they harbor
are ready to infest the crop.
 4. Losses due to problems in water management
 Aquatic weeds clog irrigation and drainage
canals and hydro electric gulls. In areas and times
when water is not sufficient, the presence of
aquatic weeds in irrigation canals not only prevents
water movement but also reduces available water
through transpiration.
 Aquatic weeds give undesirable flavor and odor to

potable water supplies. In recreational areas, they

restrict swimming, boating and fishing on ponds,
rivers and beaches.
 Aquatic recreational areas are usually infested with

aquatic weeds which are frequently manually or

mechanically removed.
5. Added cost of harvesting and other farm
operations.
 In small grained crops weeds contribute
to harvesting losses by increasing fuel
consumption and equipment wear, slowing
cylinders speed which prevents proper
threshing, and by preventing grains from
falling through the straw walker, chaffers
and sieves in the combine.
 Expenses are incurred in weeding and in
cleaning of crop seeds.
6. Land and property depreciation
 Agricultural land heavily infested with weeds will
command a lower market price owing to the extra
cost of weeding operation in producing the
crop. Similarly a house will have a lower market
value if the lawn is infested with weeds.
 Weeds reduce visibility and constitute fire
hazard along road and railroad right-of-way.
Considerable expenses are involved in controlling
vegetation along utility right-of-ways. These
areas must be sufficiently free of vegetation to
permit access for maintenance, repair and
renovation.
7. Hazard to health and livestock
 Some weeds are poisonous to livestock. They are
the major cause of disorders, illness, birth
defects and death of livestock.
 Chromolaena odorata has been reported to cause
death of animals in some ranches in Tarlac and
Palawan.
 The pollen of some weed species cause allergy
and some species cause skin irritation. Several
weed species whose pollen cause allergy haven
been reported.
 These are: Cynodon dactylon, Saccharum
spontaneum, Eleusine indica, Chrysopogon
aciculatus, Imperata cylindrica and Sorghun
halepense
 Of the broadleaf weeds, these include: Amaranthus
spinosus, Tridax procumbens, Mimosa pudica , Tithonia
diversifolia and Vernonia cinerea.
Cyperus rotundus pollen also causes allergy

Aquatic weeds serve as breeding host to disease carrying

insects.
 Pistia stratiotes serve as host of mosquitoes which carry

the parasites responsible for rural fillariasis and

encephalomyelitis
 (Seabrook 1950).

 There are certainly other incidental damages caused by

weeds particularly in agriculture.

 When put all together, the damage caused by weeds to a

farmer may be far more than anyone thinks.
 B. Benefits that may be derived from weeds
 Some plants are readily recognized as weeds

because of their general undesirableness such as

Rottboellia, Cyperus, Echinochloa. However, other
plants are not readily accepted as weeds because
of their usefulness. Among these are:
 a. Reduce soil erosion on abandon land particularly

in hilly areas.
 Cogon grows well in areas that are hilly and of low

soil fertility, works affectively in controlling

erosion.
 b. Add organic matter to the soil when properly

incorporated or plowed under.

 c. Provide food and cover for wild life:
1. Some weeds are edible - Amaranthus viridis
is used as vegetable , Portulaca oleracea is
kitchen herb.
2. Seeds of small grain weeds are used as
food, and feed for birds and hogs.
3. Some weeds are used as forage such as
Sorghum halepense, Panicum maximum and
Pennisetum purpureum.
d. Yield useful drugs and delicacies.
 Provide medicine for human such as:
 Artemisia vulgaris, Peperomia pellucida and
Centella asiatica
e. Provide habitat for insect predators.
These insects prey on pests.
f. Beautify landscape
 Some weeds have beautiful foliage and flower,
and introduced as ornamentals.
 Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and water

fern (Salvinia auriculata) were introduced to many

regions as ornamentals.
 They escape cultivation and have become widely

naturalized and in turn become weeds.

g. Provide reservoir of germplasm and constitute a
potential source of domesticated plants.
 The improved rice varieties have been developed

from wild rice. Cultivated corn was derived from a

wild maize species.

 7. Reproduction and Establishment of
Weeds
 Weeds multiply and reproduce despite the

efforts taken to eliminate them. They have

very efficient methods of reproduction and
remarkable capacity for survival under a wide
range of conditions. This is due to their
morphological and physiological adaptations
which are expressions of their high degree of
specialization.
A. Methods of Reproduction
1.Seeds or sexual reproduction.
In annual weeds, reproduction is chiefly by seeds.
Most weeds are prolific seed producers.
 Flowering in most annual weeds start as early as
five weeks after planting and coincides with the
period of rapid leaf, shoot or tiller production of
most crops.
 The duration of reproductive period is long and
flowers are produce successively hence seeds are
produced over a long period, maturing
successively a unique adaptive feature of the
weeds.
Echinochloa crusgalli L. Beauv. start flowering 48 days
after planting and mature seeds are produced in anothe
14 days. Rottboellia cochinchinensis flowers in 47 days
and produce mature seeds in 19 days.
Flowers of most weeds are small, inconspicuous and
arely occur singly and if they do, each produce
numerous seeds. Seeds vary in size ranging from minu
dust like seeds as in Cyperus rotundus, Sphenoclea
zeylanica and Monochoria vaginalis to a much larger
seeds as in Rottboellia cochinchinesis and Ipomoea
riloba.
In general, weeds produce a large number of seeds
although the average number varies widely with the
species. The number produced by an individual species
varies depending upon the size of the plant, growing
conditions, incidence of pests and on successful
pollination followed by fertilization during the flowering
period.
 Under local conditions, a single E. crusgalli plant
grown in a 36 cm diameter pot produced a total of
42,388 seeds 75% of which are filled capable of
germinating to give rise to more seeds. A single E.
colona plant produced 42,758 seeds, 74% of which
were filled.
2. Vegetative or asexual reproduction is important
in the spread of perennial weeds.
 Perennial weeds spread vegetatively as well as by

seeds. However, if a weed has an efficient means

of vegetative reproduction, sexual reproduction is
of secondary importance.
 Vegetative reproduction adds to the difficulty of

control due to the production of dormant

underground propagules.
 The principal types of vegetative propagules are:
 rhizomes
 tubers
 bulbs
 stolon
 off-shoot
 Some weeds have more than one type of vegetative

propagules

 Vegetative reproduction can start as early as three

weeks after shoot emergence for Cyperus rotundus
and Scirpus maritimus. With Pistia stratiotes off-
shoot can be produced in 18 days.
 Once initiated vegetative reproduction can proceed
very rapidly. In Scirpus maritimus as many as 45
tubers can be produced in one week after the first
daughter tuber is formed (Cao & Mercado, 1975).
 Some grasses and broadleaves have underground

stems which occasionally sent out aerial shoots.

Cut pieces of these stems are capable of growth.
 A rhizome resembles a root but is differentiated

into nodes, internodes and scale leaves. It is

generally slender and horizontal extending
through the soil acting as effective means of
vegetative propagation for weeds such as
 Imperata cylindrica L. Beauv. and
 Paspalum distichum L
 . In some species, the terminal portion of the
rhizomes develops into a fleshy storage organ,
the tubers.
 Some tubers may develop into basal bulbs,

which send out rosette of aerial leaves as with

C. rotundus. C. rotundus produces basal
bulbs and interconnected dormant tubers.
 Stolons resemble rhizomes in most respect but

they remain above the ground. The young plant

arises from the lateral bud near the basal part of
the stem axis.
 Cynodon dactylon reproduces in this manner.
B. Disseminating agent and dispersal of weeds.
 The persistence of weeds depend mainly on their
ability to reinfest the soil. Obviously, if we could
control the production of seeds of annual weeds
and suppress the rapid vegetative propagation of
perennial weeds we could eventually eliminate
many species. This is, however, difficult to
attain. In addition to their being very productive,
weeds can easily be disseminated.
 Weeds in general have no method of movement
but they can easily be dispersed. They make use
of natural forces and other agents to move them
from place to place.
 Weeds possess special structures for
dissemination.
 The structure of the propagule and the habitat of

the weeds together with the activities of man are

key factors for their efficient dispersal.
 Dispersal unit refers to the reproductive structure

usually single-seeded together with accessory

parts that separates from the mother plant and is
disseminated to other areas.
The agents that aid them to be dispersed are:
1.Wind - the dispersal units that are efficiently
dispersed by wind are very light and small, have
flattened structures, with wing-like outgrowth of
feathery or hairy appendages.
 Seeds Echinochloa sp. are light and can easily be
blown by wind. Imperata cylindrica and Saccharum
spontaneum seeds are provided with parachute
like structure. Achenes of asteracea as in
Ageratum conyzoides and Tridax procumbens are
provided with pappus consisting of a circle of silky
hairs.

 These structures provide buoyancy enabling them

to be carried through long distances by wind.
 In some species as Celosia argentea and Portulaca

oleracea, strong wind cause seeds to separate from

the plant. The seeds fall to the soil surface where
they remain or may roll with the wind.
 2. Water - the dispersal unit may be disseminated
through surface run off, irrigation water,
drainage canal and natural water ways. Some
seeds are light and possess oily film that enable
them to float. Some may possess pericarp of light
tissue, or may have inflated structure.
 Dispersal by water is common among semi-aquatic

and aquatic weeds. Kelly and Bruns (1975)

reported that 10,400, to 94,500 weed seeds per
hectare per season can be disseminated by
irrigation water.
 3. Animal and man
 Fruits and seeds of some weeds may have special

structure such as spines, hooks or sticky substance

which enable them to cling to fur or hides of animals
or clothes of man.
 Weed seeds that possess hard seed coats can pass

through digestive system of animals and birds

without loss of viability. They are eliminated with
the dung, and can still germinate.
 Rats and ants carry seeds through short distance.

Some seeds secrete natural substances that

stimulated ants to feed.
 Man carries weed seeds across natural barriers in
the shipment of seeds, feedstuff and farm
equipment. Plow and harrows may drag vegetative
propagules from one field to another.
 Some plants are introduced as ornamentals. These

introduced species may spread rapidly and

ultimately become noxious weed.
 Application of manure containing weed seeds as

fertilizers contributes to the seriousness of weed

problem in cultivated areas.
 Mud on shoes or feet of man may carry weed seeds

from one place to another.

C. Establishment of Weeds
 There is a great store of weed seeds buried in the
soil. The seasonal appearance of the annual
weeds result in linking one generation to the
next. Basic information regarding the species
and the number of weed seeds present in a given
area and the time at which these seeds germinate
will be of great help in the development of better
weed control practices. Local data indicated that
a lowland rice field contains 804,076.074 million
viable seeds per hectare. (Vega and Sierra, 1970).
 Source of weed seeds in the soil can be seeds
produced the previous season, disseminated
from other locations and originally present in the
soil.
 Seed Germination
 Germination refers to the resumption of growth of
the embryo in the seed or of the young plantlet in
the tuber, bulb or rhizome. It marks the beginning
of the battle for the survival of the weed.
 Steps involved in seed germination
 a. Imbibition - absorption of water accompanied by
swelling. This involves purely a physical process
which involves the absorption of water by starch or
non-living part of the seed and can take place in
both living and dead seeds and a physiological
process involving water absorption by the embryo.
This marks the initiation and progress of starch
hydrolysis. Activation of hydrolyzing enzyme set
in, resulting to the breakdown of food reserve that
trigger rapid metabolic activity.
 b. Period of rapid metabolic activity - cell division
and cell elongation proceed at a fast rate
supported by a rapid synthesis of materials. The
end result is the perceptive growth of the
embryo.
 c.Emergence of root. Under field condition the
radicle or root-like structure break through the
seeds and grow into the soil.
 d.Emergence of the shoot - commonly, this is
considered the first sign of weed growth, the
shoot grow above the ground.
In some weeds, germination may be:
 1. Hypogeal - cotyledons remain below or at the
surface of the ground as in grasses and sedges.
In both species plumule is enclosed in the
coleoptile.
 2. Epigeal - cotyledons are carried above the
ground as in the case of some legumenous
species.
 e.Period of independent growth - the
dependence on food reserve ceases and the
seedling start to manufacture its own
carbohydrate. From this stage on, the seedling is
on its way to establishment.

 Factors affecting weed germination

 Environmental factors
 1. Moisture - water is needed to soften the seed
coat and makes it permeable to water and
oxygen. It is also needed for enzyme activation.
 2. Temperature - favorable temperature is
needed for the normal metabolic activities
taking place.
 3. Oxygen - important in respiration for
generation of metabolic energy.
Cultural factors
 1. Water management
 In germination hydration of the seed
 component is necessary for proper enzymatic
activity. Excessive water, however, creates
oxygen tension inhibiting germination.
 Water management has become an important
tool in weed control, especially in flooded rice.
 Submergence of lowland rice field up to 5 cm
reduce the germination of E. crusgalli and
annual sedge
 Aside from reducing 02, flooding cause the
accumulation of CO2 and other gaseous product of
anaerobic respiration thereby killing the embryo.
However, some aquatic weeds germinate under
water and this can be used as guide in their
control.
 Newly shed seeds of Pistia stratiotes germinate

under water in 20 days after shedding, and float

to the surface when the primary leaves emerge
(Bua-ngan, 1975).
 In the field heavily infested with this species

germination can be stimulated by flooding when

seedlings have floated, control measure can be
applied.
2. Wetting and drying can stimulate or inhibit
germination.
 In dormant seeds of Rottboellia, alternate
wetting and drying stimulate germination,
which is partially due to loss of integrity of
the hull or loss of inhibitor.

 In non-dormant seeds initial wet period

stimulate germination but the subsequent
dry period checks growth.
 3. Cultivation has multiple effect on
germination.
 It brings to the soil surface seeds buried deep
in the soil and subject to the influence of
sunlight, enhancing germination.
 Cultivation also aerates the soil, providing
oxygen to buried seed.
 It affects severing of the dormant tubers,
rhizomes, bulbs and stolon from their mother
plant, causing them to lose dormancy.
 Light can inactivate inhibitor present in the
dormant seed and render the seed non-
dormant.
 Exposure to light can also reduce the moisture
content of seeds to a level below that required
for viability.
Seedling growth and development
 Seedling stage is the most important stage in weed

establishment. It is the most sensitive stage to

environmental influences. The demand for
nutrients and water is high at this stage so that in
a crop weed association the weed seedling
compete strongly for these factors with the crop
seedlings.
The seedling stage of most species are:
 The most vulnerable and most practical stage for

control.
 The stage where damage against the crop is at the

low level and any control measure can take

advantage of the sensitivity of the weed seedling.
 Most susceptible stage to herbicide action.
 Most pre-emergence herbicides are effectively

absorbed through the tender tissues of the

mesocotyl, coleoptile, hypocotyl or radicle.
 Other inhibit growth at the emergence of the

shoot.
 Leaves at the early seedling stage are tender

succulent, lack cutin and waxes allowing easy

penetration of the herbicide.
 Roots of seedlings have still thin epidermal walls

making herbicide absorption more efficient.

Seedling Form vs. Mature Form
 The difficulty in recognizing a species during the
seedling stage lies mainly in their morphological
forms. The seedlings may assume forms that are
different from the mature plant (Polymorphism).
 The seedlings of Monochoria have flat, sessile and

sword-shaped leaves with acute apex.

 The succeeding leaves expand and become

petiolate.
 Leaves of older plants are broadlly ovate with

sharply accuminate apex, the base is cordate or

heart-shaped
 In species possessing compound leaves, either
palmate or pinnate, the cotyledonary leaves on
the first leaf may be simple.
 The succeeding leaves may come out compound

or pinnate with few leaflets.

 As the seedling grows older, the leaves attain

the number of leaflets true to the species.

 In simple leaves serration on the margin at

seedling stage may not be as deep as those at

the mature stage
Factors Affecting Seedling Growth and Development
 1. Soil factors
 a. Nutrient level - seedling stage is characterized

by rapid metabolic activity which create a big

demand for the needed soil resources. Most weeds
are more efficient than the crops in drawing
nutrients from the soil. Amaranthus accumulates
Calcium, Cleome and Pistia accumulate potassium.
 b. Salinity - salinization of areas near sea shore

appear to favor weeds than crop.

 2. Light - shading reduces the amount of light
available to the plant reducing photosynthetic
activity and consequently reducing dry matter
production.
 Shading increases relative humidity in the area
above the shaded species causing decrease
transpiration and slow nutrient uptake from the
soil.
 High relative humidity can also cause higher
incidence of diseases.
 Some species are sensitive to shading such as
Cynodon dactylon, Imperata cylindrica,
 Pistia stratiotes and Cyperus rotundus.
3.Adaptation to growing condition
 The ability to adapt to adverse conditions is
responsible for the rapid spread and wide
distribution of weeds.
 Cynodon dactylon - introduced to Southeast Asia
as a turf grass is now growing luxuriantly as a
weed.
 Echinochloa crusgalli - native of Central and East
Asia can survive in sub-temperate condition.
 Rottboellia cochinchinensis - strictly tropical in
distribution is now found in sub temperate areas
in the United States
 Eichhornia crassipes - introduced as ornamental
during the Spanish regime. It is adapted to the
condition in the country and now is a serious
weed.
Competitive power of the weed
 Most weeds derived their competitive power
from their rapid development manifested by:
 a. rapid root growth and development
 b. rapid leaf production
 c. multiple shoot development
d. formation of large and expansive foliar-

type of cotyledon allowing early

photosynthetic function.
 e. formation of toxin, which may be toxic to
other higher plants as in Imperata and
Rottboellia or toxic to microorganisms as in
Tagetes erecta.
 The seedling stage in the most competitive
stage being characterized by a high demand for
soil nutrients, water and light in order to sustain
a rapid phase of growth.

 The weeds associated with the crop usually have

vegetative growth shorter than that of the crop,
thus their demands for environmental
resources are greater.
 AIM HIGH!
NEVER STOP
BELIEVING AND KEEP
DREAMING…. 
GOOD LUCK!