Introduction to Crop

Protection and the Major

Group of Crop Pests
Aira F. Waje
Instructor
 Introduction to Crop Protection
In nature, plants and animals
exist in a dynamically balanced
community.

Under these conditions, the

incidence of pest and diseases is
uncommon. This was the
situation when man survived on
hunting and collecting of fruits
and roots for food.
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Introduction to Crop Protection
Crop husbandry by man (15,000 and
10,000 B.C.)

- created one of the basic causes of

pests and disease development.

- the drastic and continual alteration of

the ecological conditions led to the
disruption of the biological balance in
nature.
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 Introduction to Crop Protection

• Practices in crop husbandry that aggravated the

situation and led to the population explosion of
pest and disease organisms:

1. clearing of small to large areas of land which

involve the destruction and alteration of natural
vegetation and ecosystems,

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Introduction to Crop Protection

2. cultivation of crops and the selection of plants

for yield and human acceptability,

3. intercontinental transport and trade brought

about the introduction and establishment of new
pests and diseases from other areas,

4. introduction of new crops and changes in human

habits and economic conditions.

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What is Crop Protection?
• Crop protection
- The science and practice
of managing plant
diseases, weeds and
other pests (both
vertebrate and
invertebrate) that
damage agricultural
crops and forestry.

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What is Crop Protection?
Crop protection encompasses:
•All practical aspects of pest, disease
and weed control, including the
following topics:
• Control of animal pests of world crops.
• Control of diseases of crop plants
caused by microorganisms.
• Control of weeds and integrated
management.
• Economic considerations.
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 History of Crop Protection
The first recorded use of an
insecticide who used sulfur
compounds to control insects and
A concoction –made from mites attacking their food sources.
crushed olives, burnt sulfur
and salt – to control ants and
weeds in their crops. In 800 A.D., the Chinese used arsenic
mixed with water to control insects in
their field crops and citrus orchards.
From 1750 to about 1880,
farmers began using crop
protection products more
widely and international Derived from natural sources such as
trade promoted the use of pyrethrum from dried Chrysanthemum
plant- and metal-based flowers and nicotine extract from
insecticides. tobacco plants, evolved over time.

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History of Crop Protection
Until the early 1900s, Europe and the
U.S. used compounds made with
sulfur, iron, copper, arsenic and sodium
to control weeds in cereal crops and
fungus in grapes.

Modern Chemical Methods

• In the 1930s and 40s, effective and
widely used fungicides were
developed along with the first
synthetic insecticides.

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History of Crop Protection
• During World War II, the
synthetic compound
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroet
hane (DDT) played a
significant role in saving
Allied soldiers from insect
transmitted diseases and
subsequently was hailed as
the insecticide to solve all DDT was first used to kill mosquito to end malaria.
But then it was used to common pests such as
insect issues. potato beetle, coddling moth, corn earworms and
tobacco budworms.
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 History of Crop Protection
• At this time, synthetic pesticide
production increased significantly, and the
modern-day chemical industry was
launched, thus starting a new era of pest
control.
• Pesticides developed post-war:
- warfarin in rodent control
- German synthesized organophosphate
insecticides
- Malathion (safest organophosphate)
in mosquito control
- 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, or 2,4-
D, (first selective herbicide)

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History of Crop Protection

• In recent years, the

disadvantages of the heavy
dependence of pesticides have
surfaced. Development of
pesticide resistance is one of the
most significant disadvantages
of their widespread use.

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History of Crop Protection
• INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT
was conceptualized during the
1950s when insecticide resistance,
nontarget effects, and economic
waste were clearly apparent (Stern et
al., 1959).

• Pest management is the shortened form of “protective population

management” that came about in 1965 during the 12th International
Congress of Entomology. Australian ecologists proposed “management”
to replace control in the phrase “pest control” in order to distinguish the
effect of natural control of an insect population from that of the action
of man.

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Silent Spring (Rachel Carson, 1962)
• A book that examined pesticides and their effects
on the environment.

• DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbons was the

primary concern because of their stability and
persistence in the environment.

• A major contributing factor to DDT’s effectiveness

was its long residual activity, but this persistence
contributed to bioaccumulation, or their ability to
accumulate in the fatty tissues of animals. It was
found in some situations that the biomagnification
of insecticides occurred. Do not disseminate without permission
 Major Events/Milestones in the History of Crop Protection
A. Prehistoric Times - The era of ignorance, mysticism, and superstition
Appearance of Homo sapiens - Pests are limited to lice, fleas, flies and mosquitoes that cause
250,000 BC human discomfort; Prehistoric pest control methods are limited to picking, slapping, and
squashing (hardly be called a science).
8,000 BC Beginning of agriculture.
2,500 BC The Sumerians were using sulfur compounds to control insects and mites.

2,000 BC Moses told the children of Israel, "Thou shall not sow thy field with mingled seed". (Leviticus
19:19)

1,200 BC Chinese are using plant-derived insecticides for seed treatment and fumigation; utilized
wood ashes to control stored grain pests.
950 BC First description of cultural control (burning for locust control)
750 BC Rust and mildews were mentioned in biblical writings. (Amos 9:4)
450 BC Herodotus mentioned the use of mosquito nets.

50 AD The Romans traditionally performed certain rites (Robigalia) to appease the goddess Robigo,
who was identified with cereal rust (wheat rust).
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B. Dark Ages (300 - 1,500 AD) - No significant development in pest control
300 First record of the use of biological control - ants used in citrus orchards in China.
300 - 1,500 Pest control practices were mainly based on religious faith and superstition.

C. The Renaissance (1,600 - 1, 800 AD) - Era of enlightenment and rebirth of the search for scientific
knowledge
1650 - 1780 Burgeoning of insect descriptions and biological discoveries.
1732 Farmers begin to grow crops in row to facilitate weeding.
1750 - 1880 Agricultural Revolution in Europe
- enrichment of subsistence agriculture
-introduction of new crops and farming methods
- development of plantation system (monoculture)
-replacement of native crop
1845 - 1846 Irish famine (potato blight)

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D. Golden Age of Biology (1840 - 1900 AD) "Industrial Revolution"
1850 - 1900 Study of plant diseases and disease control were intensified.
1882 Discovery of Bordeaux mixture and Paris green.
1890 Introduction of lead arsenate as insect control.
1896 Introduction of iron sulfate.

E. The early 20th Century

1930s Introduction of synthetic organics for plant pathogen control.
1939 Discovery of DDT.
1940s Organophosphate developed in Germany.
Acceleration of breeding for pest and disease resistance.
1944 First hormone-based herbicide (2,4 D)
1946 First report of insect resistance to DDT (housefly in Sweden)

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F. Mid of 20th Century
Widespread development of resistance and side effects of DDT and other
1950s - 1960s
pesticide.
1959 Introduction of the concepts of IPM and economic levels (EIL and ETL).
1960 Insect pheromone isolated, identified, and synthesized (gypsy moth).
1962 Rachel Carson's Silent Spring.
1972 Banning of DDT in the US.
Epidemic of Southern Blight of Corn in the US due to corn hybrid breeding.

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 What are Pests?
• Pest is an all-
encompassing word that
includes insects, fungi,
bacteria, viruses,
phytoplasmas,
nematodes, mollusks,
vertebrates, weeds and
parasitic flowering plant
(phanerogams).
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 Definitions of Crop Pest:
• Crop Pests

- defined in terms of the degree

and importance of crop damage
or loss.

- definition of a pest also

depends on individuals and the
prevailing conditions.
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Definitions of Crop Pest:

• Examples of the many definitions of a pest include

the following:
1. A pest is any animal or plant which harms or
causes damage to man, his animals, crops or
possessions, or even just causes him annoyance.
2. A pest is any organism detrimental to man,
whether it is an insect, disease organism, weed,
rodent, or other.

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Definitions of Crop Pest:
• Examples of the many definitions of a pest include
the following:
3. A pest is any form of plan or animal or
pathological agent injurious or potentially
injurious to plant or plant products, livestock or
man.
4. An organism is a pest when the level of damage
it causes is sufficient to warrant control
measures.
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Importance of Crop Pests
• World population (2020) =
7,794,798,739 (1.10% increase)

• Philippines (2021) ranked 13th as

most populated countries in the
world.

• With the estimated acceleration

of population in the regions of
the world, population in 2050
will reach to 9.55 billion people
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 Importance of Crop Pests

• With the world’s human

population expected to reach
nearly 10 billion by 2050 and the
negative impact of climate
change on agriculture,
maintenance of a stable global
food supply is under significant
threat.

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Importance of Crop Pests

•CROP PRODUCTIVITY is affected by crop pests.

•We incur significant losses due to pests and

diseases.
> Therefore, the reduction of losses due to factors
is an important element in increasing the efficiency
of crop production.
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Importance of Crop Pests

•These losses occur from

planting of the seeds
through field phases of
production to storage
and processing.

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Conditions which promote pests:
a) Favorable climatic conditions.
The most common way in which organisms attain
pest status is simply by an increase in number. Seasonal
increases in pest numbers are usually controlled by
climatic conditions (i. e. temperature, humidity, rainfall
and sunlight) and biological pressures.

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 Conditions which promote pests:
b) Biological change.
When the environmental conditions are
favorable, an ecological change can covert a
harmless organism into a pest.
The major ecological reasons for an
organism developing pest status include:
i) Change in cultural practices
(monoculture)
ii) Change in the character of the food
supply.
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Conditions which promote pests:

iii) Introduction to new environments.

iv) Climate in host/natural enemy relationships.

v) Loss of competing species.

vi) Economic change.

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Categories of Pests:
• Pests are categorized according to
several factors, including their
abundance and damage caused.

• The concept of economic threshold

based on the population levels of
organism, or level of incidence of a
disease, is still the most acceptable
in categorizing pests.

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What is Economic Threshold?

• Economic threshold is the population density at which

control measures should be applied to prevent an
increasing pest population from reaching economic
injury level or the population level of the organisms or
level of disease incidence above which economically
significant damage or loss is caused.

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Economic-based Decision Tool (Stern et al., 1959; Pedigo et
al.,1986)

• Economic Injury Level (EIL) - lowest population density

that will cause economic damage to host plant(s).
• Economic Threshold Level (ETL) - the density at which
control measures should be determined to prevent an
increasing pest population from reaching the economic
injury level.
• General Equilibrium Position (GEP) - the average density
of a population over a period of time (usually lengthy) in
the absence of permanent environmental changes.
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Economic-based Decision Tool (Stern et al., 1959; Pedigo et
al.,1986)
EIL

ETL

GEP

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Concept of Economic Threshold
Organisms over a long period of time and in a relatively undisturbed
environment, reach a state of equilibrium with their environment
(dynamic state of equilibrium).

This means that although population densities vary from season to

season, year to year or place to place, for a particular place, there is an
average population level which is reasonably stable over a long period
of time.

The economic threshold and economic injury level (the lowest

population density that will cause economic damage or injury that will
justify the cost of artificial control measures) are usually above this
average population level.
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Based on the concept of economic threshold and
depending on the severity of damage caused, the number
of organisms involved, frequency of occurrence and the
prevailing circumstances, pests are categorized as follows:

a) Key pests (major pests, regular pests)

- These are perennial pests which
cause serious and persistent economic
damage in the absence of effective
control measures. The population of the
damaging stage stamp above economic
injury level.
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Based on the concept of economic threshold and
depending on the severity of damage caused, the number
of organisms involved, frequency of occurrence and the
prevailing circumstances, pests are categorized as follows:

b) Minor pests
- Some organisms cause economic damage
only under certain circumstances in their local
environment. Under normal conditions, their
populations are low and the damage they cause
is insignificant.
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Based on the concept of economic threshold and
depending on the severity of damage caused, the number
of organisms involved, frequency of occurrence and the
prevailing circumstances, pests are categorized as follows:

c) Occasional pests
- Populations of occasional
pests are normally below the
economic threshold level,
occasionally rise above it.

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Based on the concept of economic threshold and
depending on the severity of damage caused, the number
of organisms involved, frequency of occurrence and the
prevailing circumstances, pests are categorized as follows:

d) Potential pests
- Species whose population level
are usually far below the economic
threshold but can become highly
injurious under changed cultural
practices or as an introduced pest.
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Based on the concept of economic threshold and
depending on the severity of damage caused, the number
of organisms involved, frequency of occurrence and the
prevailing circumstances, pests are categorized as follows:

e) Migrant pests
- These move from one area to cause
damage to crops in another area. They are
a special group of key pests which are
classified as migrant pests. Their control
normally involves international cooperation
between the members countries affected.
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General methods for the prevention and
control of crop pests:
1. Prevention method. The best way of controlling pests is to prevent
their attack. To prevent new insect pests from spreading, all animals
which harbor the pests must be properly treated.

2. Chemical method. These involve the use of chemicals to kill the pest.
This method is the most effective of all the methods. The chemicals
are generally called pesticides and include insecticides (for the
control of insect pests), rodenticides (control of rodents), herbicides
(control of weeds). They may be applied inform of powder or dust,
smoke of spray or may even be used as stomach or contact poison.
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General methods for the prevention and
control of crop pests:
3. Physical method. This involves use of scare crows, hand picking, use
of trap, fencing and burning of debris.

4. Cultural method. This is the use of good cultural practices to enable

crops escape the attack of pests. They are ploughing, proper tillage
and disposal of refuse, regular weeding, planting of resistant
varieties of crops, early planting and harvesting and practice of crop
rotation.

5. Biological method. This involves the use of natural predators and

parasites of the pests.
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