BIO214 STRUCTURE & FUNCTION OF MAJOR CELL COMPONENTS

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Unit 1

Cell is the fundamental structural unit of life

Cells are the smallest independently functioning unit in the structure of an

organism (consisting of one or more nuclei surrounded by cytoplasm and
enclosed by a membrane)

Cells are highly organized to form simple or complex organism

The nature and form of an organism is structurally and chemically determined

by cells

The two types of cells that form living things are prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells

Physiology is the science that describes how organisms function and survive
in continually changing environments

All chemical substances necessary for life are called Chemical level

Cells are the basic structural and functional units of an organism body

The science that describes how organisms function and survive in continually
changing environments is called Physiology

There are __________types of cellular arrangements

Two

The types of cellular arrangements are prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

The following are different types of cells found in the body of living organisms
 Muscle cells
 Nerve cells
 Blood cells
 Hair cell
 Egg cell
 Sperm cell
 Rod cell in eye

The cell present in the eyes is called rod cell

A tissue is a group of cells that performs a specific function

Group of cells which perform the same function is called tissue

The basic types of tissues found in the human body include

 connective tissues
 muscle
 epithelial
 nervous (Mnemonic: CMEN)
CellsTissueOrganSystem Organism

Organ consists of two or more tissues that perform a particular function (e.g.,
heart, liver, stomach, lungs, etc)

A system is an association of organs that have a common function

A system is an association of organs that have a common function

The major systems in the human body include the following

 digestive
 nervous
 endocrine
 circulatory
 respiratory
 urinary
 reproductive

The resultant tissues-organs-and-systems form the complex network of

activities that take place within an organism referred to as physiological
processes

Physiological processes are complex network of activities that take place

within an organism
The physiological processes within an organism is grouped into cellular and
organ physiology

Cellular physiology deals with the activities that take place within the cell
(such as cellular metabolisms and secretion, selective-permeability etc)

Organ physiology explains the working principles of the various organs and
organ systems of the organism such as respiration, excretion etc

The word “Karyose" was derived from Greek word meaning kernel

Karyose means kernel in Greek

In biology, the word root refer to the nucleus of a cell

"Pro" means before

"eu" means true or good

"Prokaryotic" means "before a nucleus (cells like bacteria have no nucleus)

"Eukaryotic" means "possessing a true nucleus (like those of the human body)

Prokaryotic cells have no nuclei or nucleus (TRUE)

Eukaryotic cells have true nuclei (TRUE)

Cells which lack nuclei or nucleus are called prokaryotic cells

The cells present in animals, plants, fungi and protists are called eukaryotic
cells

NB: Prokaryotic cells have no nuclei while eukaryotic cells have true nuclei
The origin of cells is the origin of life

RNA is capable of both storing genetic information and catalyzing chemical

reactions

Cells emerged 4 billion years ago

An important characteristic of cells composed of a bilayer of lipids is called cell

membrane

Lipids are known to spontaneously form bilayered vesicles in water

The eukaryotic cell is clearly developed from the prokaryotic cell (TRUE)

Lipids form bilayer vesicles in water

Chloroplast and mitochondria take up permanent residence within plant cells

through a phenomenon called endosymbiosis

A structure not visible in prokaryotic cell is known as mesosome

Mitochondrion is a double-membrane organelle, with a smooth outer
membrane and an inner membrane which protrudes into the interior of the
mitochondrion in folds called cristae
An inner membrane that protrudes into the interior of the mitochondrion in
folds is called cristae

Cellular respiration is the process by which a cell converts the raw potential
energy of food into biologically useful energy

The types of cellular respiration are aerobic and anaerobic

There are two types of cellular respiration

 anaerobic i.e not using oxygen

 aerobic i.e require oxygen

The major difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is that eukaryotic

cells contain membrane-bound organelles while prokaryotic cells lack a
nucleus and membranous organelles

The most important organ in the cell is the nucleus

A membrane-delineated (bound) compartment that houses the eukaryotic cell's

DNA is called nucleus

Nucleus is also called true nucleus

The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules called

chromosomes
Chromosomal DNA is stored in the cell nucleus

Eukaryotic cells are ciliated with primary cilia

Primary cilia play important roles in

 Chemosensation
 Mechanosensation
 Thermosensation

Eukaryotes can move using motile cilia or flagella

The flagella of eukaryotes are more complex than those of prokaryotes (TRUE)

The simplest cellular organisms are Prokaryotes which include all bacteria and
archaea (archaebacteria)

Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and membranous organelles (TRUE)

Eukaryotic cells contain a membrane-bound nucleus and numerous

membrane-enclosed organelles (e.g., mitochondria, lysosomes, Golgi apparatus)

Animals, plants, fungi, and protists are all eukaryotes

The following are similarities between eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells

o They perform most of the same kinds of functions and in the same ways
o Both are enclosed by plasma membranes and filled with cytoplasm
o The cytoplasm of both cells are loaded with small structures called
ribosomes
o Both have DNA which carries the archived instructions for operating the
cell
o Similar DNA structure

DNA carries the archived instructions for operating the cell

The following are differences between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells
 o Eukaryotic cells are larger and much more complex than prokaryotic
cells
o Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus, bound by a double membrane
while prokaryotic cells have no nucleus
o Eukaryotic DNA is linear; prokaryotic DNA is circular
o Eukaryotic DNA is complexed with proteins called "histones" and is
organized into chromosomes; prokaryotic DNA is "naked"
o A eukaryotic cell contains chromosomes while prokaryotic cell contains
plasmids
o Prokaryotic cell requires fewer genes to operate than the eukaryotic cell
o Ribosomes of eukaryotic cells are larger and more complex than those of
prokaryotic cells

The central region of the prokaryotic cell where the DNA is located is called
nucleoid

Eukaryotic DNA is linear while prokaryotic DNA is circular

Eukaryotic DNA is complexed with proteins called histones

A prokaryotic cell contains one circular DNA molecule and a varied assortment
of smaller circlets of DNA called plasmids

Ribosomes are made out of special class of RNA molecules called ribosomal
RNA or rRNA

A eukaryotic ribosome is composed of five kinds of rRNA and eighty kinds of

proteins

Prokaryotic ribosomes are composed of three kinds of rRNA and fifty kinds of
proteins

The part of eukaryotic cells filled with large complex collection of organelles
enclosed in their own membranes is called cytoplasm

Cell membrane is also called plasma membrane

All eukaryotic cells have mitochondria (FALSE)

The common features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are

 DNA
 Plasma membrane
 Cytoplasm
 Ribosomes
The organelles on which protein synthesis takes place is called Ribosomes
Ribosomes are organelles on which protein synthesis takes place

Plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer that separates the cell from the
surrounding environment and functions as a selective barrier for the import
and export of materials

The genetic material contained in chromosomes and located in a nonmembrane

bound nucleoid in prokaryotes and a membrane-bound nucleus in eukaryotes
is called DNA

Cytoplasm is the rest of the material of the cell within the plasma membrane,
excluding the nucleoid or nucleus consisting of fluid portion called the cytosol
and the organelles

Unit 2

The cell membrane is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all
cells from the outside environment

A biological membrane that separates the interior of cells from the outside
environment is called cell membrane
In cells, the organelle which is selectively-permeable to ions and organic
molecules and controls the movement of substances in and out of cells is
known as cell membrane

Cell membrane is composed of phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins

Cell membranes are involved in cellular processes which include these

 cell adhesion
 ion conductivity
 cell signaling
 serve as attachment surface for extracellular glycocalyx
 attachment surface for cell wall
 attachment surface for intracellular cytoskeleton

The cell membrane has two (2) primary building blocks

Molecules of phospholipid form a double layer called phospholipid bilayer

Two layers of phospholipid molecules are referred to as phospholipid bilayer

The following are proteins found in the cell membrane or plasma membrane
 integral proteins
 peripheral proteins
 glycoproteins

The primary lipid in the cell membrane is called phospholipid

The following are forces that contribute to the formation of the lipid bilayer in
the cell membrane
 Van der Waal
 Hyrdogen bonds
 Electrostatic
 Non-covalent interactions (Mnemonic: VHEN)

Hydrophobic interactions are the major driving force in the formation of lipid
bilayers

Lipid bilayers have very low permeability for ions and most polar molecules

All these are referred to as polar solutes

 amino acids
 nucleic acids
 carbohydrates
 proteins
 ions

S. J. Singer and Garth Nicolson proposed fluid mosaic model in 1972

Fluid Mosaic Model was proposed in the year 1972

Fluid mosaic membrane is another term for Phospholipid bilayer

The following are functions of cell membrane

 Maintenance of the cell potential
 Selective permeability
 Anchoring the cytoskeleton
 Provide shape to the cell
 Provide mechanical support for the cell
 Transport
 Communication (via receptors)

Membranes serves important role in regulating the movement of materials into

and out of cells

Membranes regulate the movement of materials in and out of cells

Phospholipid bilayer is also called fluid mosaic model

Membranes in prokaryotes and mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotes

facilitate the synthesis of ATP through a process known as chemiosmosis

The apical membrane of a polarized cell is the surface of the plasma

membrane that faces the lumen

The plasma membrane that faces the lumen of a polarized cell surface is called
apical membrane

The basolateral membrane of a polarized cell is the surface of the plasma

membrane that forms its basal and lateral surfaces

The surface of the plasma membrane that forms the basal and lateral surfaces
of a polarized cell is called basolateral membrane

Integral proteins are the most abundant type of protein which span the lipid
bilayer

Peripheral proteins are proteins that are bounded to the membrane by

electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonding with the hydrophilic
phospholipid heads

The cytoskeleton provides anchorage and scaffolding for membrane proteins

Cytoskeleton is found underlying the cell membrane in the cytoplasm and

provides scaffolding for membrane proteins to anchor as well as forming
organelles that extend from the cell

The apical surfaces of epithelial cells are dense with actin-based finger-like
projections known as microvilli

The glycocalyx is an important feature in all cells, especially epithelia with

microvilli

The cell membrane consists of three classes of amphipathic lipids:

phospholipids, glycolipids, and cholesterols
Examples of transmembrane protein complexes are pores and gates

Lipid droplets make up much of the volume of adipocytes, which are

specialized lipid-storage cells, but they are also found in a range of other cell
types

In epithelial cells, apical surface increases cell surface area and increase the
absorption rate of nutrients

The following eukaryotic cell structures contain DNA

 nucleus
 mitochondrion
 chloroplast

The most abundant class of amphipathic lipids in the cell membrane are
phospholipids

Lipid vesicles or liposomes are circular pockets that are enclosed by a lipid
bilayer

Lipid vesicles are also called liposomes

Lipid vesicles and liposomes are formed by suspending a lipid in an aqueous

solution then agitating the mixture through a process called sonication

Plasma membranes contain carbohydrates, predominantly glycoproteins

Which of these is capable of participating in cell adhesion and lymphocyte

homing?
Glycocalyx

Sialic acid carries a negative charge

In glycocalyx, the penultimate sugar is galactose and the terminal sugar is

sialic acid

Proteins are macromolecules which transport chemicals and information

across the membrane
Proteins can be in the form of peripheral proteins or integral proteins

The amount of protein in a typical cell membrane is 50%

The permeability of a membrane is the ease of molecules to pass through it

Electrically neutral and small molecules pass through the membrane easier
than charged and large molecules (TRUE)

The inability of charged molecules to pass through the cell membrane results
in pH parturition (of substances throughout the fluid compartments of the
body)

Transport processes which occur passively without the cell needing to expend
any energy to make them happen are called passive transport processes

Active transport is the transportation of some molecules through the cell

membrane powered by energy from the cell’s reserves

Diffusion is the movement of ions or molecules from regions of higher

concentration to regions of lower concentration

Passive processes require no expenditure of energy by a cell

Simple diffusion is the net movement of a substance from an area of high

concentration to an area of low concentration

The rate of diffusion is influenced by the following

 concentration gradient
 cross-sectional area through which diffusion occurs
 temperature
 molecular weight of a substance
 distance through which diffusion occurs

Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a semi permeable membrane (like a

cell membrane) from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high
solute concentration
Which of these passive processes require a semi permeable or selectively
permeable membrane for passage of molecules (solutes)?
Osmosis

Facilitated diffusion is the movement of a substance across a cell membrane

from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration

The plasma membrane or a membrane which allow certain substances to cross

or pass through it is referred to as selective permeable or semi-permeable
membrane

The characteristics of a molecule that determine the permeability of the

membrane are

1) Polarity - (hydrophobic vs hydrophilic)

2) Charge - (charged vs uncharged)
3) Size - (large vs small)

Osmosis is the movement of water from a region of high water concentration to

a region of lower water concentration through a semi permeable membrane

Active transport is a cell membrane process that requires energy

Active transport requires energy because it pumps materials across the
membrane against the concentration gradient (i.e. from low concentration to
high concentration)

Active transport is the movement of a substance across a cell membrane from

an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration using a carrier
molecule

The transportation of large materials into the cell is called Endocytosis

A process in which waste materials are expelled from the cell in bulk form
(through the vesicles) is called Exocytosis

The acronym RBC stands for Red Blood Cell

The solution that loses the water content is called hypotonic solution

The solution that gains the water is called hypertonic solution

In plant and animal cells, a special equilibrium case where there is no net
movement of water is called isotonic

An extra structure surrounding plant cell which is absent in animal cell is

called cell wall

Facilitated diffusion is diffusion (across a membrane) from a high

concentration to a lower concentration

In cells, carrier proteins or carrier molecules which facilitate the diffusion

(across a membrane) from a high concentration to a lower concentration are
called Permeases

Carrier proteins or molecules are also known as Permeases

Simple diffusion can be accomplished by the passage of solutes through

tunnel-like transmembrane proteins called channel proteins

Simple diffusion is the passage of solutes through "tunnel-like"

transmembrane proteins called channel proteins
Simple diffusion is the passage of solutes through tunnel-like transmembrane
proteins called channel proteins

The cytoplasm of a cell is surrounded by a cell membrane or plasma

membrane

Plants and prokaryotes plasma membrane is covered by a cell wall

The membrane layer which separate and protect a cell from its surrounding
environment, made of double layer of lipids (hydrophobic fat-like molecules)
and hydrophilic phosphorus molecules is called a phospholipid bilayer

Cell surface membranes contain receptor proteins that allow cells to detect
external signaling molecules such as hormones

The cytoskeleton organizes and maintains the cell's shape

The components of eukaryotic cytoskeleton are microfilaments, intermediate

filaments and microtubules

The prokaryotic cytoskeleton is involved in the maintenance of cell shape,

polarity and cytokinesis

There are two kinds of genetic material

 deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
 ribonucleic acid (RNA)

Retroviruses have RNA as their genetic material

The biological information contained in an organism is encoded in its DNA or

RNA sequence

The RNA used for information transport is called messenger RNA (mRNA)

Nucleic acid which perform enzymatic functions in organisms that use DNA for
the genetic code itself is called ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules are used to add amino acids during protein
translation
Prokaryotic genetic material is organized in a simple circular DNA molecule
(the bacterial chromosome) in the nucleoid region of the cytoplasm

Eukaryotic genetic material is divided into different, linear molecules called

chromosomes inside a discrete nucleus

Eukaryotic genetic material is called chromosomes located in the nucleus

The human cell genetic material is contained in the cell nucleus (nuclear
genome) and in the mitochondria (mitochondrial genome)

The human cell genetic material is contained in the cell nucleus

In humans, the nuclear genome is divided into 23 pairs of linear DNA

molecules called chromosomes

The mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule distinct from the nuclear
DNA (TRUE)

Foreign genetic material (DNA) can be artificially introduced into the cell by a
process called transfection

DNA is artificially introduced into the cell by transfection

Unit 3

The following are components of the cellular environment

 Water
 Ions
 Carbohydrates
 Lipids
 Proteins
 Nucleic Acids

Water comprises 60 - 90% of most living organism cells

Atoms or molecules with unequal numbers of electrons and protons are called
ions
Ions are atoms or molecules with unequal numbers of electrons and protons

Examples of ions found in both intra- and extracellular fluid (cellular

environment) include
 sodium,
 potassium
 calcium
 chloride
Carbohydrates form 3% of the dry mass of a typical cell

Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms (e.g.,

glucose is C6H12O6)

Carbohydrates are an important source of energy for cells

Which macromolecules act as source of energy for the cells?

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are classified into three different groups

 Monosaccharides
 Disaccharides
 Polysaccharides

Most monosaccharides contain 5 or 6 carbon atoms

Examples of monosaccharide are glucose and galactose

Two monosaccharides linked together to form disaccharides

Examples of Disaccharides are these

 Fructose
 Lucrose
 lactose (Mnemonic: FSL)

Several monosaccharides linked together form polysaccharides

Examples of polysaccharides are the following

 Starch (plant)
 Glycogen (liver)
A common plant polysaccharide made up of many glucose molecules is called
starch

One of these carbohydrates (polysaccharide) is stored in the liver?

Glycogen

Lipids form 40% of the dry mass of a typical cell

Lipids are composed largely of carbon and hydrogen

Lipids are involved mainly with long-term energy storage

Phospholipids are the major building block in cell membranes

The classes of lipids include the following

 Steroids
 Triglycerides
 Phospholipids (Mnemonic: STP)

Triglycerides consist of one glycerol molecule and three fatty acids (e.g., stearic
acid)

Fatty acids are composed of 16 or 18 carbons chains

Steroids include these

 Testosterone
 Estrogen
 Cholesterol

(Mnemonic: STEC)

A typical cell contain about 50 - 60% protein of the dry mass

Amino acid is the subunit of proteins in the cell

There are 2 functional categories of proteins

  Structural proteins
 Enzymes

Enzymes are also called catalysts

In cells, enzymes lower the amount of activation energy needed and speed up
the reaction

The nucleic acid of cell membrane is divided into two types - DNA and RNA

RNA include mRNA, tRNA and rRNA

All cells possess DNA, the hereditary material of genes

Which of these is referred to as the cell's primary machinery?

RNA

The cytoplasm of a cell is surrounded by a cell membrane or plasma membrane

The plasma membrane in plants and prokaryotes is covered by a cell wall

Cell membrane separate and protect a cell from its surrounding environment
(and is a double layer of lipids (hydrophobic fat-like molecules) and hydrophilic
phosphorus molecules)

A double layer of lipids (hydrophobic fat-like molecules) and hydrophilic

phosphorus molecules present in plasma membrane is called phospholipid
bilayer

Cell surface membranes contain proteins that allow cells to detect external
signaling molecules such as hormones receptor proteins

Hormones which allow cells to detect external signaling molecules are known
are receptor proteins

The organelle which maintains and organizes the cell shape is called
cytoskeleton

Eukaryotic cytoskeleton is composed of microfilaments, intermediate filaments

and microtubules
Prokaryotic cytoskeleton is involved in the maintenance of cell shape, polarity
and cytokinesis

Two different kinds of genetic material are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA)

Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules are used to add amino acids during protein
translation

Cells have a set of "little organs" called organelles

Organelles in eukaryotes are complex (and membrane) bound than prokaryotic

cells organelles (TRUE)

In the protoplasm of a cell, a gelatinous fluid that fills the cell and surrounds
the organelles is called the cytosol

Organelles are found inside the protoplasm of the cell in the cytosol

Inside the protoplasm of the cell, organelles are found in the cytosol

Cytosol is a gelatinous fluid that fills the cell and surrounds the organelles

All of these organelles are numerous (hundreds to thousands) in the cell

 Mitochondria
 Peroxisomes
 Lysosomes

Solitary (single and isolated from others) organelles found in the cell are
nucleus and golgi apparatus

Golgi apparatus is also called Golgi complex or Golgi body

The cytoplasm consists of a gelatinous solution called cystosol, microtubules

and organelles

The cytoplasm consists of a gelatinous solution cystosol, microtubules

(cytoskeleton) and organelles
The cytoplasm of a cell is composed of cystosol, microtubules and organelles

Organelles literally referred to as little organs

Nucleus is called the cell's information center

Ribosomes are formed within the nucleoli

Prokaryotic cells lack nucleus (TRUE)

The nucleus is the most conspicuous organelle found in a eukaryotic cell

The most conspicuous organelle found in a eukaryotic cell is called nucleus

(Conspicuous means obvious to the eye)

The organelle which houses the cell's chromosomes is called nucleus

These statements are true of the nucleus

 It is the cell's information center

 Only Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus
 Nucleic acids are present in the nucleus
 Absent in prokaryotic cells
  Conspicuous organelle found in a eukaryotic cell
 It houses the cell's chromosomes
 The site for DNA replication and RNA synthesis (transcription)
 Regulates all cell activity

The nucleus is spherical and separated from the cytoplasm by a double

membrane called the nuclear envelope

The nucleus is the hallmark of eukaryotic cells

The term eukaryotic means true nucleus

The nucleus is enveloped by a pair of membranes enclosing a lumen that is

continuous with that of the endoplasmic reticulum

The nucleus is enveloped by a pair of membranes enclosing a lumen that is

continuous with that of the endoplasmic reticulum called the nuclear envelop

The nuclear envelope is perforated by thousands of nuclear pore complexes

(NPCs)

Nuclear Pore Complexes (NPCs) control the passage of molecules in and out of
the nucleus

When the nuclear envelope isolates and protects a cell's DNA, it is transcribed
or copied into a special RNA, called messenger RNA (mRNA)
The chromatin is composed of DNA

DNA contains the information for the production of proteins

The information for the production of proteins are encoded in these DNA bases
o Guanine
o Cytocine
o Adenine
o Thymine

(Mnemonic: GCAT)

The three processes that enable the cell to manufacture protein are:

 Replication allows the nucleus to make exact copies of its DNA

 Transcription allows the cell to make RNA working copies of its DNA
 In translation the Messenger RNA is used to line up amino acids into a
protein molecule

A specialized region within the nucleus where ribosome subunits are

assembled is called nucleolus

In prokaryotes, DNA processing takes place in the cytoplasm

The nucleus contains the chromosomes of the cell

The DNA of the nucleus with its associated proteins is called chromatin

Chromatin contains small amounts of a wide variety of proteins known as

nonhistone proteins

Most of the protein in the nucleus consists of multiple copies of 5 kinds of

histones

Transcription factors cannot bind to their promoter if the promoter is blocked

by a nucleosome

The actual transcription of protein-coding genes is done by RNA polymerase II

(RNAP II)
During the period between cell divisions, when the chromosomes are in their
extended state, one or more of them (10 in human cells) have loops extending
into a spherical mass called the nucleolus

The nuclear envelope is perforated with thousands of pores

Each nuclear pore complexes (nuclear envelope) is constructed from a number

different protein called nucleoporins

Transport through the nuclear pore complexes is active

Proteins are synthesized in the cytosol

Mitochondria and Chloroplasts are only found in eukaryotic cells (TRUE)

Mitochondria and chloroplasts each contain their own genome - DNA in

circular plasmids (TRUE)

The two organelles that serve as the power generators in eukaryotic cells are
mitochondria and chloroplasts

These statements are true of Mitochondria

 They are only found in eukaryotes

 They are the power generators
 Mitochondria are self-replicating organelles
 They occur in various numbers, shapes, and sizes in the cytoplasm of all
eukaryotic cells
 They have a double-membrane
 Generates energy in eukaryotic cell
 Generate the cell's energy by oxidative phosphorylation
 Mitochondria multiply by splitting into two
 Respiration occurs in the cell mitochondria

Modified chloroplasts are called plastids

Chloroplasts (plastids) use solar energy to generate carbohydrates and oxygen
from carbon dioxide and water

Fig: Mitochondria

The primary function of mitochondria is production of adenosine triphosphate

(ATP)

Mitochondria has inner membrane with folds or shelf-like structures that

contain elementary particles (enzymes) important in ATP production called
cristae

These are parts or constituents of Mitochondria

 Matrix
 Inner membrane
 Cristae
 Outer membrane

(Mnemonic: MICO)

The acronym ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate

The following organelles are only present in eukaryotes

 Mitochondria
 Chloroplasts
 Golgi apparatus (or Golgi body or Golgi complex)
 Lysosomes
 Peroxisomes

Golgi apparatus consists of a series of flattened sacs called cisternae

In Golgi apparatus, cisternae are flattened stacks of membrane found in a
series of five to eight

The function of the Golgi apparatus is to modify, sort, and package proteins

Fig: Golgi apparatus

Golgi apparatus is responsible for handling the macromolecules required for

proper cell functioning

The Golgi apparatus modifies proteins that it receives from the rough
endoplasmic reticulum and also transports lipids to vital parts of the cell and
creates lysosomes

Lysosomes are manufactured in the cell by Golgi apparatus

Cisternae help proteins travel from different points in the cell using enzymes

The functions of Golgi apparatus include the following

 production of glycosaminoglycans
 bcl-2 genes located within the golgi apparatus prevent apoptosis
 handles macromolecules required for proper cell functioning
 processes and packages macromolecules for use within the cell or for
secretion
 Golgi apparatus modifies proteins received from rough endoplasmic
reticulum
 it transports lipids to vital parts of the cell
 production of lysosomes
The Bcl-2 genes located within the Golgi apparatus prevent apoptosis or the
destruction of the cell

Apoptosis is also called cell death or cell destruction

A ribosome is the component of a biological cell that creates proteins from all
amino acids and
RNA representing the protein

Ribosomes synthesis proteins from amino acids and RNA representing the
protein

In translation, the DNA sequence in genes is copied into a messenger RNA

(mRNA)

A process in which the DNA sequence in genes is copied into a messenger RNA
(mRNA) and ribosome read the information to synthesis (create) proteins is
called translation

Ribosomes are made from complexes of RNAs and proteins

Ribosomes are divided into two subunits

The three domains of life on Earth are bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes

The ribosomes in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells resemble those in

bacteria

The word ribosome comes from ribonucleic acid and the Greek: soma (meaning
body)

The Greek word “soma” means body

Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes known as acid hydrolases

Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes called acid hydrolases which digest

excess or worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria

Peroxisomes have enzymes that rid the cell of toxic peroxides

In peroxisomes, destructive enzymes or organelles not contained in a
membrane-bound system with ability to detonate and destroy the cell are
called suicide bag

Which organelle is referred to as the cytoskeleton organizer?

Centrosome

Centrosomes are composed of two centrioles

The number of centrosome present in the animal cells is one

Animal cells have a single centrosome

The microtubules of a cell, a key component of the cytoskeleton is produced by

the centrosome

Centrosomes are found in some fungi and algae cells (TRUE)

In eukaryotic cells, vacuoles store food and waste

Vacuoles are described as liquid filled space and are surrounded by a

membrane

Which of these cells or organisms have contractile vacuoles which pump water
out of the cell if there is too much water?
Amoeba

The vacuoles of eukaryotic cells are larger in plants than animals (TRUE)

The organelle which amoeba use to pump excess water out of the cell is called
contractile vacuoles

Centrioles are paired cylindrical structures located near the nucleus that play
important role in cell division

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a eukaryotic organelle that forms an

interconnected network of tubules, vesicles, and cisternae within cells

Rough endoplasmic reticula synthesize proteins, while smooth endoplasmic

reticula synthesize lipids and steroids
Sarcoplasmic reticula solely regulate calcium levels

The general structure of the endoplasmic reticulum is an extensive membrane

network of cisternae (sac-like structures) held together by the cytoskeleton

The three varieties of endoplasmic membrane are called rough endoplasmic

reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum and sarcoplasmic reticulum

Vesicles are surrounded by coating proteins called COPI and COPII

COPII targets vesicles to the Golgi and COPI marks them to be brought back to
the RER

A second method of transport out of the ER are areas called membrane contact
sites

SER stands for smooth endoplasmic reticulum

The following are functions of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

  synthesis of lipids and steroids
 metabolism of carbohydrates
 regulation of calcium concentration
 drug detoxification
 attachment of receptors on cell membrane proteins
 steroid metabolism

The Smooth ER contains the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase which converts

glucose-6-phosphate to glucose in a process called gluconeogenesis

Which cell organelle converts glucose-6-phosphate to glucose?

smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), from the Greek sarx, ("flesh")

Sarx a Greek word means flesh

Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) is a special type of smooth ER found in smooth

and striated muscle

The SER synthesizes molecules while the SR stores and pumps calcium ions
(TRUE)

The SR's release of calcium upon electrical stimulation of the cell plays a major
role in excitation-contraction coupling

Glycosylation involves the attachment of oligosaccharides

The word 'protoplasm' comes from the Greek protos for first, and plasma for
thing formed

The word Protoplasm was first used by Hugo von Mohl in 1846

Thomas Huxley referred to protoplasm as the "physical basis of life"

The idea that protoplasm is divisible into cytoplasm and nucleus reflects the
primitive knowledge of cell structure that preceded the development of electron
microscopy
Protoplasm is the living content of a cell that is surrounded by a plasma
membrane (cell membrane)

Protoplasm is composed of a mixture of;

i) Small molecules such as: ions, amino acids, monosaccharides and water,
ii) Macromolecules such as: nucleic acids, proteins, lipids and polysaccharides

In eukaryotes, the protoplasm surrounding the cell nucleus is known as the

cytoplasm

In eukaryotes, the protoplasm surrounding inside of the nucleus is the

nucleoplasm

In prokaryotes the material inside the plasma membrane is the bacterial

cytoplasm

In gram-negative bacteria the region outside the plasma membrane but inside
the outer membrane is the periplasm

In many plant cells most of the volume of the cell is not occupied by
protoplasm, but by "tonoplast”

In plant cells, most of the volume of the cell is occupied by tonoplast

A protoplast is a plant or fungal cell that has had its cell wall removed

The physical properties of protoplasm are the following

 It is a transparent and jelly-like material

 The consistency varying from the more liquid
 Slightly gelatinous white of a fresh egg to that of semi-solidified gelatin of
jelly
 If the protoplasm is more liquid it is termed a sol, if more gelatinous, a
gel
The chemical properties of protoplasm can be divided into inorganic and
organic substances

Water makes up 90% of the protoplasm

The following are inorganic substances which make up the protoplasm

 Water
 NaCl-salt
 Oxygen
 carbon dioxide

The following are organic substances which make up the protoplasm

 Proteins
 Lipids
 Enzymes
 Nucleic acids
 Carbohydrates

(Mnemonic: PLENC)

Functions of the Protoplasm include the following

 Growth
 Chemical
 Reproduction
 Irritability
 Movement
 Excretion

(Mnemonic: G CRIME)

Cells divide to form identical daughter cells

Cellular respiration takes place in the mitochondria

The cytoplasm is a thick liquid residing between the cell membrane holding all
organelles, except for the nucleus
Within the cells of eukaryotes, the contents of the cell nucleus are separated
from the cytoplasm called the nucleoplasm

The inner, granular mass part of the cytoplasm is called the endoplasm

The outer, clear and glassy layer of the cytoplasm is called the cell cortex or
ectoplasm

The part of the cytoplasm that is not held within organelles is called the
cytosol

The cytosol is a complex mixture of cytoskeleton filaments, dissolved

molecules, and water that fills much of the volume of a cell

Cytosol is a gel with a network of fibers dispersed through water

(3) ribosomes (indicated by purple dots)

(4) vesicle
5) rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
(6) Golgi apparatus
(7) cytoskeleton
(8) smooth ER
(9) mitochondria
(10) vacuole
(11) cytosol
(12) lysosome
(13) centrioles within centrosome

The cytoplasm has three major elements; the cytosol, organelles and inclusions

The cytosol is a translucent fluid in which the plasmic elements are suspended

Cytosol makes up about 70% of the cell volume and is composed of water, salts
and organic molecules

Organelles are membrane-bound "organs" inside the cell that have specific
functions

These are the major organelles that are suspended in the cytosol
 Mitochondria
 Endoplasmic reticulum
 Golgi apparatus
 Vacuoles
 Lysosomes
 Chloroplasts (plant cells)

Inclusions are small particles of insoluble substances suspended in the cytosol

Lipid droplets make up much of the volume of adipocytes (which are

specialized lipid-storage cells)