Republic of the Philippines

Tarlac Agricultural University

INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION-GRADUATE STUDIES
Malacampa, Camiling, Tarlac

Cell Structure
& Function

OFELIA M. MANZON
MaEd-Science
 THE HISTORY OF THE CELL

First Cells Seen in Cork

While the invention of the telescope made the Cosmos accessible to
human observation, the microsope opened up smaller worlds, showing what living forms
were composed of. The cell was first discovered and named by Robert Hooke in 1665.
He remarked that it looked strangely similar to cellula or small rooms which monks
inhabited, thus deriving the name.
However what Hooke actually saw was the dead cell walls of plant cells (cork) as it
appeared under the microscope. Hooke’s description of these cells was published in
Micrographia. The cell walls observed by Hooke gave no indication of the nucleus and
other organelles found in most living cells.
The first man to witness a live cell under a microscope was Anton van
Leeuwenhoek, who in 1674 described the algae Spirogyra. Van Leeuwenhoek probably
also saw bacteria.

Formulation of the Cell Theory

In 1838, Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden were enjoying after-dinner
coffee and talking about their studies on cells. It has been suggested that when Schwann
heard Schleiden describe plant cells with nuclei, he was struck by the similarity of these
plant cells to cells he had observed in animal tissues. The two scientists went
immediately to Schwann’s lab to look at his slides. Schwann published his book on
animal and plant cells (Schwann 1839) the next year, a treatise devoid of
acknowledgments of anyone else’s contribution, including that of Schleiden (1838). He
summarized his observations into three conclusions about cells:
1. The cell is the unit of structure, physiology, and organization in living things.
2. The cell retains a dual existence as a distinct entity and a building block in the
construction of organisms.
3. Cells form by free-cell formation, similar to the formation of crystals (spontaneous
generation).
 We know today that the first two tenets are correct, but the third is clearly wrong. The
correct interpretation of cell formation by division was finally promoted by others and
formally enunciated in Rudolph Virchow’s powerful dictum, Omnis cellula e cellula,:
“All cells only arise from pre-existing cells”.

Modern Cell Theory

1. All known living things are made up of cells.
2. The cell is structural & functional unit of all living things.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells by division. (Spontaneous Generation does not
occur).
4. Cells contains hereditary information which is passed from cell to cell during cell
division.
5. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition.
6. All energy flow (metabolism & biochemistry) of life occurs within cells.

The Cell

The cell (from Latin cella, meaning "small room) is the basic structural,
functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms. A cell is the smallest unit
of life that can replicate independently, and cells are often called the "building blocks of
life". The study of cells is called cell biology.
Cells are of two types, eukaryotic, which contain a nucleus, and prokaryotic,
which do not. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms, while eukaryotes can be either
single-celled or multicellular.

Prokaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cells were the first form of life on Earth, characterized by having vital
biological processes including cell signaling and being self-sustaining. They are simpler
and smaller than eukaryotic cells, and lack membrane-bound organelles such as the
nucleus. Prokaryotes include two of the domains of life, bacteria and archaea. The DNA
of a prokaryotic cell consists of a single chromosome that is in direct contact with the
cytoplasm. The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called the nucleoid. Most prokaryotes
are the smallest of all organisms ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 µm in diameter.

A prokaryotic cell has three architectural regions:

 Enclosing the cell is the cell envelope – generally consisting of a plasma

membrane covered by a cell wall which, for some bacteria, may be further
covered by a third layer called a capsule. Though most prokaryotes have both a
cell membrane and a cell wall, there are exceptions such as Mycoplasma
(bacteria) and Thermoplasma (archaea) which only possess the cell membrane
 layer. The envelope gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior of the cell
from its environment, serving as a protective filter. The cell wall consists of
peptidoglycan in bacteria, and acts as an additional barrier against exterior forces.
It also prevents the cell from expanding and bursting (cytolysis) from osmotic
pressure due to a hypotonic environment. Some eukaryotic cells (plant cells and
fungal cells) also have a cell wall.
 Inside the cell is the cytoplasmic region that contains the genome (DNA),
ribosomes and various sorts of inclusions. The genetic material is freely found in
the cytoplasm. Prokaryotes can carry extrachromosomal DNA elements called
plasmids, which are usually circular. Linear bacterial plasmids have been
identified in several species of spirochete bacteria, including members of the
genus Borrelia notably Borrelia burgdorferi, which causes Lyme disease. Though
not forming a nucleus, the DNA is condensed in a nucleoid. Plasmids encode
additional genes, such as antibiotic resistance genes.
 On the outside, flagella and pili project from the cell's surface. These are
structures (not present in all prokaryotes) made of proteins that facilitate
movement and communication between cells.

Eukaryotic cells

Structure of a typical plant cell Structure of a typical animal cell

Plants, animals, fungi, slime molds, protozoa, and algae are all eukaryotic. These
cells are about fifteen times wider than a typical prokaryote and can be as much as a
thousand times greater in volume. The main distinguishing feature of eukaryotes as
compared to prokaryotes is compartmentalization: the presence of membrane-bound
organelles (compartments) in which specific metabolic activities take place. Most
important among these is a cell nucleus, an organelle that houses the cell's DNA. This
nucleus gives the eukaryote its name, which means "true kernel (nucleus)". Other
differences include:

 The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in function, with minor

differences in the setup. Cell walls may or may not be present.
 The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules, called
chromosomes, which are associated with histone proteins. All chromosomal DNA
is stored in the cell nucleus, separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane. Some
eukaryotic organelles such as mitochondria also contain some DNA.
 Many eukaryotic cells are ciliated with primary cilia. Primary cilia play important
roles in chemosensation, mechanosensation, and thermosensation. Cilia may thus
be "viewed as a sensory cellular antennae that coordinates a large number of
cellular signaling pathways, sometimes coupling the signaling to ciliary motility
or alternatively to cell division and differentiation."
  Motile cells of eukaryotes can move using motile cilia or flagella. Motile cells are
absent in conifers and flowering plants. Eukaryotic flagella are less complex than
those of prokaryotes
What Are the Parts of the Cell?
Have you ever wondered what the inside of a cell looks like? If you think about
the rooms in our homes, the inside of any animal or plant cell has many similar room-like
structures called organelles. Each organelle is a place where specific jobs are done.
Plant and animal cells have many of the same organelles. But in some cases, the
organelles in cells are different. For example, in plant cells, there are more types of
organelles than are found in animal cells. Below are some names and descriptions of
organelles commonly found in cells.
 
Plasma membrane- The membrane enclosing a cell is made up
of two lipid layers called a "bilipid" membrane. The lipids that
are present in the plasma membrane are called "phospholipids."
These lipid layers are made up of a number of fatty acid building
blocks. The fatty acid that makes up this membrane has two
different parts to it- a small water loving head- hydrophilic head.
Hydro stands for water and philic means liking or loving. The
other part of this fatty acid is a long water-repelling or water
hating tail.This tail is hydrophobic- Hydro stands for water and
phobic means fear. The plasma membrane is arranged in such a
way so that the tails face each other on the inside and the heads
face towards the outside of the membrane.

Channels/pores- A channel in the cell's plasma membrane. This

channel is made up of certain proteins that control the
movement of molecules, including food and water, into the cell. 

 
Nucleus- The nucleus is the control center of the cell. It is the
largest organelle in the cell and it contains the DNA of the cell.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) contains all the information for

cells to live, perform their functions and reproduce.
Inside the nucleus is another organelle called the nucleolus. The
nucleolus is responsible for making ribosomes.
The circles on the surface of the nucleus are the nuclear pores.
These are where ribosomes, and other materials move in and out
of the cell.
 
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)- It is a network of membranes
throughout the cytoplasm of the cell. There are two types of ER.
When ribosomes are attached it is called rough ER and smooth
ER when there are no ribosomes attached.
The rough endoplasmic reticulum is where most protein
synthesis occurs in the cell. The function of the smooth
endoplasmic reticulum is to synthesize lipids in the cell. The
smooth ER also helps in the detoxification of harmful substances
in the cell.

Ribosomes- Organelles that help in the synthesis of proteins.

Ribosomes are made up of two parts, called subunits.
Ribosomes are made of one large and one small subunit.
They get their names from their size. One unit is larger than the
other so they are called large and small subunits.
Both these subunits are necessary for protein synthesis in the cell.
When the two units are docked together with a special
information unit called messenger RNA, they make proteins.
Some ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm, but most are
attached to the endoplasmic reticulum. 

Golgi complex- It is the organelle in the cell that is responsible

for sorting and correctly shipping the proteins produced in the
ER. Just like our postal packages, which should have a correct
shipping address, the proteins produced in the ER should be
correctly sent to their respective address. It is a very important
step in protein synthesis. If the Golgi complex makes a mistake
in shipping the proteins to the right address, certain functions in
the cell may stop.
This organelle was named after an Italian physician-Camillo
Golgi. He was the first person to describe this organelle in the
cell.
Mitochondrion- This is the cell’s powerhouse. This organelle
packages the energy from the food you eat into ATP molecules.
Every type of cell has a different amount of mitochondria
(plural). There are more mitochondria in cells that have to
perform lots of work, for example- your leg muscle cells, heart
muscle cells etc. Other cells need less energy to do their work
and have less mitochondria.

 
Chloroplast- This is the organelle in which photosynthesis
takes place. In this organelle the light energy of the sun is
converted into chemical energy.
Chloroplasts are found only in plant cells not animal cells. The
chemical energy that is produced by chloroplasts is finally used
to make carbohydrates like starch that get stored in the plant.
Vesicles- This term literally means "small vessel". This organelle
helps store and transport products produced by the cell.
The vesicles are the transport and delivery vehicles like our mail
and Federal Express trucks.
Some vesicles deliver materials to parts of the cell and others
transport materials outside the cell in a process called exocytosis.

 
Vacuole- Plant cells have what looks like a very large empty
space in the middle. This space is called the vacuole.
Don't be fooled, the vacuole contains large amounts of water and
stores other important materials such as sugars, ions and
pigments.

 
Cytoplasm- A term for all the contents of a cell other than the
nucleus. Even though the cartoon drawings do not look like it,
the cytoplasm contains mostly water.
Some fun facts about water and the human body:

 Adult bodies are about 50 to 65 percent water.

 A child’s body has a little more water at 75 percent.
 The human brain is about 75 percent water.

Cell wall and Plasmodesmata- In addition to cell membranes,

plants have cell walls. Cell walls provide protection and support
for plants. In land plants, the cell wall is mostly made of
cellulose.
Unlike cell membranes, materials cannot get through cell walls.
This would be a problem for plant cells if not for special
openings called plasmodesmata. These openings are used to
communicate and transport materials between plant cells because
the cell membranes are able to touch and therefore exchange
needed materials.

Peroxisomes- These collect and safely break down chemicals

that are toxic to the cell.

 
 Centrioles- These are found only in animal cells and come into
action when the cells divide, helping with the organization of
chromosomes.

Lysosomes- Created by the Golgi apparatus, these help break

down large molecules into smaller pieces that the cell can use.

Cytoskeleton- Made up of filaments and tubules, it helps shape

and support the cell. It also helps move things move around in
the cell. For artistic purposes, the cytoskeleton is shown in just
one place when in reality it is found throughout the entire cell.

Enzymes, CoEnzymes and Energy

Energy
All living things require energy.
Nutrients are one source of energy, as well as being molecules organisms
require to grow, reproduce or repair
Biochemical reactions are the processes used for the formation, breakdown and
rearrangement of molecules to provide organisms with energy
Enzymes
Proteins that catalyzes chemical reactions
Substrate
molecules at the beginning of the process which enzyme may act, and convert it
to product
Catalyst
A catalyst is a chemical that speeds up the reaction but is not used up in the
reaction
◦ Lowers the activation energy needed to start a reaction
◦ Is not used up during the reaction
◦ Is unchanged after a reaction
Activation Energy
is the required input of energy to make a reaction start
  Chemical reactions need an input of energy = the activation energy
 During this part of the reaction the molecules are said to be in transition state
 Increasing the temperature make molecules move faster
 Enzymes can increase the rate of reactions without increasing the temperature

In a chemical reaction there is a ‘turn on/ of’:

 Activation
 Inhibition

How Enzymes Work?

 When the enzyme and substrate are connected, it is known as enzyme-
substrate complex
 The binding site is where the enzyme physically attaches itself to the
substrate
 The active site is where the enzyme will cause a specific part of the
substrate to change

Some enzymes need an additional molecule to carry out the process

Cofactors are inorganic ions or organic molecules that serve an enzyme helpers
Coenzymes are organic molecules that function as a cofactor
May be certain amino acids, nitrogenous bases, and vitamins

Competition
  Enzymatic competition is where there are several kinds of enzymes available to
combine with the same kind of substrate molecule
Inhibitor
 Inhibitor is a molecule that attaches itself to an enzyme and interferes with the
enzymes ability to form an enzyme-substrate complex
Competitive Inhibition
Negative-Feedback Inhibition

 In competitive inhibition an inhibitor has a shape that is closely resembling the

normal substrate of an enzyme

Factors Affecting the Rate of Enzyme Reaction

 Temperature
 Cofactors and Coenzymes
 pH level
 Inhibitors

References:
 Landmark Papers in Cell Biology: Selected Research Articles Celebrating Forty Years of
The American Society for Cell Biology. 2000. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
 Mazzarello P. A unifying concept: the history of cell theory. Nat Cell Biol. 1999.
1(1):E13-5.
 https://askabiologist.asu.edu/content/cell-parts
 http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/olc/dl/120070/bio10.swf