Cellular Structure

and Function
 The Cell Theory…
The basic concepts of this theory can be summarized as
follows:

Cells are the building blocks of all plants and animals

All cells come from the division of preexisting cells

Cells are the smallest unit that perform all vital

physiological functions

Each cell maintains homeostasis at the cellular level

Robert Hooke (1665)

Cells
 Cells are the smallest living things
 Cells are the structural and functional subunits of all of our
body systems
 Cell Biology is the study of cells, their internal structures,
and the chemical reactions that occur within them
 Every cell has 3 principal parts:
 The plasma membrane is the flexible outer surface of the cell
 The cytoplasm contains numerous organelles surrounded by
cytosol
 The nucleus is a large organelle that contains the cells
chromosomes
Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Plasma Membrane
 The plasma membrane @plasmalemma is a strong but flexible barrier
between the interior of a cell and the outside world

 The fluid mosaic model describes membrane structure:

 A bilayer of phospholipids provides a structural foundation

 A variety of membrane proteins interact with the lipids

 All lipids and many proteins are able to move about freely

 The plasma membrane is the major means that cells use to communicate
with other cells and with the environment
1) Physical isolation
2) Regulation of exchange with the
environment
3) Sensitivity to the environment
4) Structural support
The CM is a physical barrier that separates the
inside of the cell from the surrounding
extracellular fluid.
The CM controls the entry of ions and
nutrients, such as glucose; the elimination of
wastes; and the release of secretions.
The CM is the 1st part of the cell affected by
changes in the composition, concentration, or
pH of the extracellular fluid.
Specialized connections between CM, or
between membranes and extracellular
materials, give tissues stability.
 Membrane Lipids
 Lipids form most of the surface area of the cell membrane (but they
account only about 42% of its weight).
 Phospholipid bilayer?? Why??
- The phospholipid molecules in the cell membrane form two layers.
- Phospholipid has both a hydrophilic end (the phosphate portion - at the
membrane surface) and a hydrophobic end (the lipid portion – on the
inside).
- Contains cholesterol and small quantities of other lipids.

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Membrane Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates account for roughly 3% of the weight of a cell membrane.
 They are components of complex molecules such as proteoglycans, glycolipids and
glycoproteins.
 Forming a layer known as glycocalyx.
 Important functions of glycocalyx:
i) Lubrication and protection
-form a viscous layer that luricates
and protects the CM.
ii) Anchoring and locomotion
-can help anchor the cell in place because the components are sticky.
-it also participates in the locomotion of specialized cells.
iii) Specificity binding
-GP and GL can function as receptors, binding specific extracellular
compounds, such binding can alter the properties of the cell surface
and indirectly affect the cell’s behavior.
iv) Recognition
-GP and GL are recognize as normal and abnormal by cells involved
with the immune response.
 Membrane Proteins
 Proteins are much denser than lipids (account for roughly 55% of the
weight of a cell membrane).
 Structural classes of membrane proteins:
i) Integral protein
-cannot be removed without damaging or destroying the membrane.
-also known as transmembrane protein because it span the width of
the membrane one or more times.
ii) Peripheral protein
-bound to the inner or outer surface of the membrane and easily
separated from it.

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Membrane Proteins -Functions & Structures
-MP may have a variety of specialized functions

Channels
-Some IP contain a central pore/channel
-The channel permits the movement of water
and small solutes across the CM.

Carrier proteins
-Bind solutes and transport across the CM
-The transport process involves a change in
shape of the carrier protein when solute
binding occurs,
-may require ATP as energy source.

Receptor proteins
-receptor are sensitive to the presence of
specific extracellular molecules (ligands).
-Binding of receptor protein with ligands may
trigger changes in the activity of the cell
Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
 Membrane Proteins -Functions & Structures
-MP may have a variety of specialized functions

Enzymes
-Enzymes in CM may be integral or peripheral
proteins.
-The catalyze reactions in the extracellular
fluid/cytosol, depending on the location of the
protein and its active site.

Anchoring proteins
-AP attach the CM to other structure and
stabilize its position.
-e.g inside-cytoskeleton, outside – attach to
another cell.

Recognition protein/Identifiers
-the cells of the immune system recognize other
cells as normal and abnormal based on the
presence or absence of characteristic
Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
recognition protein
Cytoplasm vs Cytosol
 Cytosol (IF) vs Extracellular Fluid (EF)

Differences Cytosol @ IF Extracellular Fluid (EF)

1) Concentration of potassium High Low
ions
2) Concentration of Low High
sodium ions
3) Suspended proteins Higher concentration Lower concentration
4) Carbohydrates Small quantities Medium quantities
5) Amino acids and lipids Small reserves No reserves
6) Masses of insolubles Same (e.g. pigment granules, glycogen granules)
materials
 The Organelles
 Organelles are structures that each perform specific functions for the cell.
 Perform the tasks that keep a cell alive and functioning normally.
 ..specific functions related to cell structure, growth, maintenance & metabolism.
 2 categories of cellular organelles:
1) Non membranous organelles
-are not completely enclosed by membranes.
-all of the components are in direct contact
with the cytosol.
-cytoskeleton, microvilli, centrioles, cilia,
ribosomes & proteasomes.
2) Membranous organelles
-isolated from the cytosol by phospholipid membranes.
-endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes,
mitochondria & nucleus.
 The Cytoskeleton
 Functions as the cell’s skeleton.
 Provides an internal protein framework that gives
the cytoplasm strength and stability.
 Includes microfilaments, intermediate filaments and
microtubules.
 Major functions:
 Determining cell shape
 Plays a role in cell metabolic functions
 Organizing the specific protein synthesis
 Organizing the contents of the cell
 Moving organelles
 Moving chromosomes during cell division
 Creating and moving membrane vesicles (in
phagocytosis etc.)
 Microfilaments

 The smallest of the cytoskeletal elements are the microfilaments.

 Less than 6 nm in diameter, composed of the protein ACTIN (common in the
periphery of the cell and rare in the region surrounding the nucleus).
 3 major functions:
i) Anchor the cytoskeleton to integral proteins of the cell membrane (provide the
additional mechanical strength and attach the cell membrane to the enclosed
cytoplasm).
ii) Interact with other proteins and determine the consistency of the cytoplasm.
iii) Interact with the protein MYOSIN to produce active movement and change
the shape of entire cell.
 Intermediate Filaments
 The protein composition of IF varies among cell types.
 Range from 7 - 11 nm in diameter, intermediate in size.
 Insoluble and the most durable of the cytoskeletal elements.
 3 major functions:
i) strengthen the cell and help maintain its shape.
ii) stabilize the position of the organelles.

iii) stabilize the position of the cell with respect to surrounding cells through
specialized attachment to the cell membrane.
e.g. the keratin fibers in superficial layers of the skin are IF that makes these
layers strong and able to resist stretching,
 Microtubules
 All our cells contain microtubules (hollow tubes built from globular protein
TUBULIN, the distribution in the cell change over the time)
 Diameters about 25 nm, extend outward into the periphery of the cell from a
region near the nucleus called the centrosome.
 4 major functions:
i) Form the primary components of the cytoskeleton (giving the cell strength,
rigidity and anchoring the position of major organelles).
ii) Provides a mechanism for changing the shape and movement of the cell.
iii) Serves as a kind of monorail system to move vesicles or other organelles
within the cell.
iv) Form structural components of organelles such as centrioles and cilia.
 Microvilli
 Small, finger-shaped.
 Increase the surface area that are
actively absorbing materials.
 Cover the surfaces of the cells
 Have extensive connections with the
cytoskeleton
 Microfilaments helps to stiffen each
microvillus and anchors it to the
cytoskeleton
Centrioles
 Cylindrical structures composed of
microtubules.
 Intimately associated with the
cytoskeleton.
 Forms the mitotic spindle during cell
division
 Associated with the movements of
DNA strands.
 Without centrioles, cells are
incapable of dividing.
 Cilia and Flagella
 Projections of the cell surface that create movement
 Cilia move fluid along the cell surface
-relatively stiff during the effective power stroke & flexible during recovery stroke.
 Flagella move cells through the medium
 Ribosomes
 Responsible for protein synthesis
 Ribosomes have two major subunits, that are
normally separate, distinct and made of both
RNA and proteins (both contain special proteins
and ribosomal RNA).
-Small ribosomal subunit
-Large ribosomal subunit
 Before protein synthesis can begin, a small and
large subunit must join together to form
complete functional ribosome.
 2 types of functional ribosomes:
i) Free ribosomes make proteins used in the
cytosol
ii) Attached/fixed ribosomes make proteins used
in membranes and for export (attached to ER).
 Proteasomes

 Removes proteins that produced from free

ribosomes within the cytoplasm.
 Contain an assortment of protein digesting
enzymes (proteases).
 Responsible for removing and recycling damage
or denatured proteins.
 Important for breaking down the abnormal
proteins that produced within the cells infected
by viruses.
 Play a key role in the immune response.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER,SER)
 ER is a network of intracellular membranes connected
to the nuclear envelope (surrounds the nucleus).
(Endo=within, plasm=cytoplasm,
reticulum=network).
 The ER has 4 major functions:
i) Synthesis – proteins, carbohydrates, lipids.
ii) Storage – storage synthesize materials without
affecting cellular operations.
iii) Transport – materials can travel in the ER.
iv) Detoxification – drugs or toxins can be absorbed
and then neutralized by the enzymes within it.
Smooth ER (SER)

 Smooth refer to the fact that no ribosomes are associated with the ER.
 Associated with the synthesis of lipids and carbohydrates
 The SER functions:
i) Synthesis of phospholipids and cholesterol needed for maintenance and growth
of the CM, nuclear membrane, and Golgi apparatus in cells.
ii) Synthesis of steroid hormone such as androgens and estrogens.
iii) Synthesis and storage of glycerides especially triacylglycerides, in liver and
fat cells.
iv) Synthesis and storage of glycogen in skeletal muscle and liver cells.
v) Responsible for the detoxification and inactivation of drugs especially in liver
and kidneys cells.
Rough ER (RER)

 Functions as a combination workshop and shipping depot.

 Many newly synthesized proteins are chemically modified and packaged for
export to their next destination.
 Types of ribosomes  fixed ribosomes (rough appearance, grainy).
 mRNA provides instructions to ribosomes to synthesize proteins.
 Inside the RER, each protein assumes its secondary and tertiary structures.
 Other proteins are chemically modified by the attachment of carbohydrates.
 Proteins were then packaged into small membranous sacs (transport vesicles)
before deliver their contents to the Golgi apparatus.
 The Golgi Apparatus
 3 major functions of the GA:
i) modifies and packages secretions, such as hormones and enzymes, for release
through exocytosis.
ii) renews or modifies the cell membrane.
iii) packages special enzymes within vesicles for use in the cytosol.
 3 types of vesicles that carry materials away from the GA:
i) Secretory vesicles – contain secretions that will be discharged from the cell.
ii) Membrane vesicles – can alter the sensitivity and functions of the cell
according to the materials that binds/fuse with it.
iii) Lysosomes – contain digestive enzymes.
 The GA-Processing and Packaging of Proteins

1) RER synthesized the proteins and packaged it in the vesicles.

2) Transport vesicles will deliver the protein to the entry face of cysternae in GA.
3) Transport vesicles will fuse with GA membrane and emptying their contents.
4) Inside the GA, enzymes will modify the arriving proteins and glycoproteins.
5) Transport vesicles moves the modified materials to the medial and exit cysternae.
6) 3 types of vesicles waiting to transport the exit materials from the GA to PM.
7) Materials exported from cell by exocytosis, some other materials will merge with
the PM.
 Lysosomes and Peroxisomes
 Lysosomes contain digestive
enzymes used to break down:
 Ingested material

 Worn-out parts of cells

 Destroy the whole cell

 Generate toxic chemicals

that could damage or kill the
cell

 Peroxisomes contain oxidative

enzymes important in metabolism.
 Absorb and break down fatty acids
and other organics compounds.
 Protect the cell from the potentially
damaging effects of free radicals
produced during catabolism.
 Mitochondria
 Mitochondria contain enzymes that help cells produce large
amounts of ATP, in a process called cellular respiration

 Mitochondria contain an inner and an outer membrane

 Mitochondria self-replicate, using their own ribosomes and

some of their genes are on their own DNA

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Energy Production
 Most cells generate ATP through the break-down of
carbohydrates, especially glucose.
 1st steps take place in cytosol called glycolysis (each
glucose molecule is broken down into 2 molecules of
pyruvic acid) then absorbed into mitochondria.
 In the mitochondrial matrix, CO2 is removed from
each pyruvic acid and the remainder enters the TCA
(Tricarboxylic Acid) Cycle or Krebs Cycle.
 TCA Cycle break down the absorbed pyruvic acid
through enzymatic pathway in the presence of O2.
 The remnants of pyruvic acid contain C,O and H
atoms  C & O will release as CO2, which diffuses
out of the cell.
 The hydrogen atoms are delivered to carriers
proteins in the cristae.
 The electrons from hydrogen atoms are removed and
passed along a chain of coenzymes.
 The energy released during this steps performs the
enzymatic conversion of ADP to ATP.
 Mitochondria produces about 95% of the ATP
needed to keep cell alive.
 Nucleus
 The central control center of a cell
 A double-walled nuclear envelope separates the
nucleus from the cytoplasm
 The nucleolus is a site within the nucleus that
produces new ribosomes
 Chromosomes contain our genes - the source of
information for building and running cells
 Nuclear pores permit the movement of ions and
small molecules.
 Nuclear matrix provides structural supports
and involves in the regulation of genetic
activity.
 Chromatin gives the nucleus a clumped and
grainy appearance.
 Each chromosome contains DNA combined
with histone proteins to form chromatin
 The histones allow the DNA to be tightly
packed.
 The Transcription of mRNA
Steps in mRNA transcription:
1) The two DNA strands separate, and RNA
polymerase bind to the promoter of the gene.
2) The RNA polymerase moves from one
nucleotide to another along the length of the
template strand.
3) At each site, complementary RNA nucleotides
form hydrogen bonds with the DNA
nucleotides of the template strand.
4) The RNA polymerase then strings the
arriving nucleotides together into a strand of
mRNA.
5) On reaching the stop signal at the end of the
gene, the RNA polymerase and the mRNA
strand detach.
6) Transcription ends.
7) The complementary DNA strands now
complete their reassociation as hydrogen
bonding occurs between complementary base
pairs.
1. With the aid of diagram, discuss about the transcription
of mRNA. (10 marks)
 Translation
 Protein synthesis occurs through translation.
 The formation of linear chain of amino acids, using the information provided by
mRNA strand.
 Using mRNA and ribosomes to create proteins
 The ribosomes are made of proteins and rRNA, and they have multiple binding
sites for mRNA and tRNA
 tRNA’s help line up the correct amino acids to make a new protein
Translation Process
Steps in translation:
1) mRNA becomes associated with
small ribosomal subunit and then
the large and small ribosomal
subunit join together.
2) Specific tRNA picks up a specific
amino acid.
3) tRNA anticodon attaches to
complementary mRNA codon.
4) The next tRNA with its amino acid
moves into position on mRNA.
5) Amino acids are joined by a peptide
bond and the 1st tRNA detaches.
6) As more amino acids are brought
into position by their tRNA’s, the
protein gets progressively longer.
7) Stop codon terminate synthesis of
protein and protein is released.
8) Following protein synthesis,
ribosomal subunit separate.
Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4. Describe about translation process during protein
synthesis. (9 marks)
 Cell Division & Cell Cycle
 All non-gamete producing cells of the body are produced by mitosis
 The cell cycle is an orderly sequence of events by which somatic cells replicate
 Cells grow, and also duplicate their DNA during interphase
 Cells divide their chromosomes and their nuclei during mitosis
 After mitosis, cells finish dividing during cytokinesis
The Cell Cycle
 DNA Replication

 DNA molecules are copied during

S phase

 The structure of the double helix

allows both copies of the new
DNA to have the same sequence

 At the end of S phase, sister

chromatids have been created
(even though they are not visible
until mitosis)
Mitosis vs Meiosis
 Homework!!!
1. Define the differences between mitosis and meiosis
2. What is autolysis?
3. What is cytokinesis?
4. With the aid of diagram, discuss the cell cycle during
interphase.
 Active vs Passive Processes

 All transport of molecules or ions across membranes can be

classified as being either passive or active:
 Passive processes are spontaneous:
 Chemicals move based on their kinetic energy
 Movement is from higher to lower concentrations (“downhill”)
 Examples: simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis

 Active processes use stored energy:

 Energy input is required for chemicals to move
 Movement is from lower to higher concentrations (“uphill”)
 Examples: primary and secondary active transport,
endocytosis
 Diffusion

 Passive movements of solutes

 Movements of solutes directly through the lipid bilayer
is called simple diffusion
 Movement of solutes with the help of membrane
proteins is called facilitated diffusion
 The rate of diffusion depends on:
 Concentration gradient
 Temperature
 Mass of diffusing ion/molecule
 Membrane surface area
 Diffusion distance
 Diffusion
 Non-polar molecules move via simple diffusion
 Many ions cross membranes through ion channels
 Polar molecules are transported by carrier-mediated
facilitated diffusion

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Osmosis
 Most membranes are selectively permeable - and allow water to move
much more quickly than many solutes
 Water moves in response to differences in solute concentrations,
and water always moves toward the higher solute level

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Tonicity and its Effects on Cells
 Osmotic gradients can have dramatic effects on cells
 3 types of solutions are:
1) Hypotonic solutions 2) Isotonic solutions 3) Hypertonic solutions

 Because water moves quickly, most of our body fluids and cells
are in osmotic equilibrium

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

1. Define the tonicity and its effects on cells by using a
diagram.
 Active Transport

 In active transport, chemicals move “uphill” (against their

concentration gradients]
 Energy is required to drive all active processes
 The three types of active processes are:
 Primary active transport - ATP is the source of energy
 Secondary active transport - ion gradients are the source of
energy
 Transport in vesicles - some large molecules can enter
(endocytosis) and leave (exocytosis) cells without being
broken down
 Primary Active Transport
 Primary active transport pumps ions “uphill” (against their
concentration gradients)
 Energy from ATP hydrolysis is used to power this process
 The Sodium potassium pump is an example of primary active
transport

* Solutes are
transported across
plasma
membranes with
the use of energy,
from an area of
lower
concentration to
an area of higher
concentration
 Sodium Potassium Pump

Cytosol 3 Na+
K+
gradient 1

Copyright
Copyright 2010,
2010 John
John Wiley
Wiley &
& Sons, Inc.
Inc. 50
 Active Transport

Cytosol 3 Na+
K+
gradient 1

Copyright
Copyright 2010,
2010 John
John Wiley
Wiley &
& Sons, Inc.
Inc. 51
 Secondary Active Transport
 Secondary active transport also moves ions or molecules “uphill”
(against their concentration gradients)
 Energy from an existing ion gradient powers this process
 Symporters and antiporters are two types of secondary active
transport - many specific examples of each type exist in cells

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Transport in Vesicles
 Vesicles are small spherical membrane sacs
 Vesicles are used to move large molecules in and out of
cells, and between organelles
 One important example is receptor-mediated
endocytosis
RME
1) Target molecules (ligands) bind to
receptor in CM.
2) Areas coated with ligands form deep
pockets in membrane surface.
3) Pocket pinch off, forming endosomes
known as coated vesicles.
4) Coated vesicles fuse with primary
lysosomes to form secondary
lysosomes.
5) Ligands are removed and absorbed
into the cytoplasm.
6) The lysosomal and endosomal
membrane separate.
7) The andosome fuses with the cell
membrane and the receptors are
again available for ligand binding.
 Phagocytosis allows some
cells to “eat” large particles
 Bulk-phase endocytosis
allows cells to take in fluid
and small solutes together
 Transcytosis allows cells to
transport large chemicals
across an epithelium

Copyright 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

 Homework!!!
1. Describe pinocytosis.
2. Why is the transmembrane
potential important?
The End