Week 2

The Cell

- Structural and functional unit of all living things, including humans

Functional Characteristics of Cells

- Cell metabolism and energy use

o Cell metabolism refers to all chemical reactions that take place within the cell
o These metabolic reacts often involve energy transfers meaning the energy released
by one reaction is then used in another reactions
o Example: energy released from digestion of large nutrient molecules fuels cellular
activity, such as the synthesis of other molecules and muscle cell contraction
- Synthesis of molecules
o The different cells of the body synthesise or produce, various types of molecules
including proteins, nucleic acids and lipids
o The structural and functional characteristics of cells are determined by the types of
molecules they produce
o Some of these molecules such as lipids (phospholipids), phospholipids, DNA, RNA,
proteins (receptors, hormones, cell membrane channels, antibodies and muscle
proteins)
- Communication
o Communication with other cells through sending and receiving chemical and/or
electrical signals
o Example: nerve cells produce chemical signals by which they communicate with
muscle cells. These muscle cells respond to the chemical signals by contracting or
relaxing
o Cells communicate with each other for things such as (ex. cell division or cell growth)
- Reproduction and inheritance
o most cells contain a complete copy of all the genetic information of the individual
 o this genetic information ultimately determines the structural and functional
characteristics of the cell
o Most cells contain DNA which directs how a cell functions and looks like
o Genetic information is passed on from older cells to new cells so that they can carry
out the same function as their predecessor cells
o Specialised cells called gametes are responsible for transmitting genetic information
to the next generation

Human Cell

- Plasma membrane
- Cytoplasm
- Cytoskeleton
- Nucleus
- Ribosomes
- Golgi apparatus
- Lysosomes
- Mitochondria
- Centrioles
- Cilia
- Microvilli

Plasma Membrane 1

- Also known as the cell

membrane
- Forms the outer boundary
of the cell through which
the cell interacts with its external environment
- Function:
o Encloses and supports cellular contents
o Functions as the outer boundary of the cell
o Controls what goes into the cell and what comes out
o Role in intercellular (cell to cell) communication
 The plasma membrane may have protein receptors that are scattored on it
which allows them to communicate with other cells or recognise other cells
 Marker molecules enable cells to recognise one another

Plasma Membrane 2

- Structure
o Lipid bilayer composed of phospholipids bilayer (round head and long tail attached)
and cholesterol (45-50%)
 Provides flexibility to the cell
o Carbohydrates (4-8%) are only found on the outer surface of the plasma membrane
 o Proteins (45-50%)
 Extend across or
are embedded in
either surface of
the lipid bilayer
 Example: marker
proteins (allow
cells to identify
other cells),
proteins that
allow cells to bind
other cells

Plasma Membrane 3

- Structure
o Glycocalyx (outer surface of the cell membrane)
 Collection of glycolipids, glycoproteins and carbohydrates on the outer
surface of the plasma membrane
 Establishes an extracellular micro-environment that has functions in
metabolism, cell recognition and cell association
 Contains molecules absorbed from the extracellular environment so there is
often no precise boundary between plasma membrane and the extracellular
environment
 Glycoproteins (combination of carbohydrates and proteins)
 Glycolipids (combination of carbohydrates and lipids)
 Carbohydrates

Cytoplasm

- Cellular fluid material outside the nucleus but within the boundaries of the plasma
membrane
o Contains:
 Organelles
 Cytosol
 A viscous (thick solution) mostly made out of water containing ions,
molecules and proteins
 Many of these proteins are enzymes that catalyse the breakdown of
molecules for energy or the synthesis of sugars, fatty acids, amino
acids etc.

Cytosol

- Fluid portion of the cytoplasm (ions and proteins in water)

o Cytoplasmic inclusions
 Aggregates (clumps) of chemicals that are either made within the cell or
transported into the cell
 Example: melanin, glycogen
o Cytoskeleton
 Supports the cell and its organelles
  Responsible for changes to the shape of
the cell and movement of its organelles
 Holds organelles in place
 Contains (All proteins):
 Microtubules
o Help provide support and
structure to the cytoplasm
of the cell
o Involved in cell division
and in the transport of
intracellular materials
 Microfilaments
o Provide structure to the
cytoplasm and mechanical
support for the microvilli
o Support the plasma membrane and define the shape of the
cell (changes in the shape involve the breakdown and
reconstruction of these microfilaments)
 Changes in shape allow some cells to move
 Intermediate filaments
o Provide mechanical strength
 Collectively these three types of cytoskeletal structures provide the
structural support to the cell and the cytoplasm and provide
mechanical strength

Nucleus

- Located centrally
- Enclosed by a nuclear envelope, a double membrane with nuclear pores
- Red blood cells lose their nuclei as they develop
- Skeletal muscle cells and osteoclasts (bone cell) contain more than one nucleus
- Function
o The control centre of the cell – directs cell activities most of which take place in the
cytoplasm
o Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in the nucleus carries the code for the structural and
functional characteristics of the cell
 Regulates protein synthesis and therefore the chemical reactions of the cell
- Structure
o Enclosed by a nuclear envelope
 A bilayer membrane (double membrane) surrounding the nucleus envelope
 Porous
o Contains chromatin (dispersed, thin strands of DNA and associated proteins) which
condenses to become visible mitotic chromosomes during cell division
o Contains one or more nucleoli (dense bodies consisting of ribosomal RNA and
proteins)
o Nucleoplasm
o Nucleolus
 Found within the nucleus and lacks a surrounding membrane
  Primarily produces ribosomes

Ribosomes

- Function
o Sites of protein synthesis
 Nucleolus, nucleus and cytoplasm
- Structure
o Composed of 2 subunits: large and small
o Ribosomal subunits consist of ribosomal RNA produced
in the nucleolus of the nucleus and proteins produced
in the cytoplasm
 The ribosomal subunits then move through the
nuclear pores into the cytoplasm where they
assemble with mRNA to form a functional
ribosome during protein synthesis
o Some are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum (primarily synthesise important
membrane proteins and proteins that are secreted from the cell) whereas other
(free ribosomes) are distributed throughout the cytoplasm (primarily synthesise
proteins used inside the cell)

Endoplasmic Reticulum

- Structure
o Flattened, interconnecting sacs and tubules
o The interior spaces of those savs and tubules are called cisternae and are isolated
from the rest of the cytoplasm
o Rough endoplasmic reticulum (membranous tubules and flattened sacs with
attached ribosomes)
 Function:
 Responsible for the synthesis and modification of proteins and
transports them to the Golgi Apparatus
o Ribosomes are where proteins are produced and modified
 Cells with abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum synthesise large
amounts of protein, which are secreted for use outside the cell
o Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (membranous tubules and flattened sacs without
ribosomes)
 Function:
 Breakdown of glycogen to
glucose
 Site of lipid, steroid and
carbohydrate synthesis
o Many phospholipids
produced here help form
vesicles within the cell
and contribute to the
plasma membrane
  Detoxification of harmful substances (ex. Drugs)
o Process by which enzymes act on chemicals and drugs to
change their structure and reduce their toxicity
 Stores calcium ions that function in muscle contraction

Golgi Apparatus

- Structure
o Flattened membranous sacs stacked on each other, with cisternae
o Secretory vesicles
 Move to the surface of the cell, their membranes fuse with the plasma
membrane and the contents of the vesicles are released to the exterior by
exocytosis
 Can accumulate in some cells but their contents frequently are not released
to the exterior until the cell receives a signal
 Example: secretory vesicles that contain the hormone insulin do not
release until the concentration of glucose increases and acts as a
signal for the secretion of insulin from the cells
- Function
o Modifies, packages and distributes proteins and lipids that are made in the rough
endoplasmic reticulum for secretion or internal use

Lysosomes

- Structure
o Membrane bound
vesicles that form at the Golgi apparatus
 o Contain enzymes within them that function as intracellular digestive systems
o Vesicles taken into the cell fuse with the lysosomes to form one vesicle and to
expose the endocytized materials to hydrolytic enzymes
o Certain white blood cells have large numbers of lysosomes that contain enzymes to
digest phagocytised bacteria
- Function
o Digestion of molecules (nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates etc)
o Digestion of organelles that are no longer functional (autophagy)
o In some cells lysosomes move to the plasma membrane and the enzymes are
secreted by exocytosis
 Example: the normal
process of bone
remodelling involves
the breakdown of
bone tissue by
specialised bone cells.
Lysosomes produced
by those cells release
the enzymes
responsible for that
degradation into the
extracellular fluid
-

Mitochondria

- Structure
o Has an inner and outer membrane (double membrane), separated by an
intermembrane space
o Spherical, rod shaped or threadlike structures
o Inner membrane has numerous infoldings called cristae that project like shelves into
the interior of the mitochondrion
o Material located inside the inner membrane is called the Matrix
o Change shape and number continuously as they split and fuse with each other
o Has its own genetic material and thus can reproduce by itself
o Cells with a greater energy requirement have more mitochondria with more cristae
than those with lower energy requirements
o Increases in the number of mitochondria result from the division of pre-existing
mitochondria.
 Example: when muscles enlarge as a result of exercise, the number of
mitochondria within the muscle cells increases to provide additional ATP
required for muscle contraction
o Contain DNA and ribosomes. The information for making some mitochondrial
proteins is stored in mitochondrial DNA and those proteins are synthesised on
mitochondrial ribosomes
 - Function
o ATP (adenosine triphosphate) production and supply when oxygen is available
 ATP is the primary energy source for most energy requiring chemical
reactions that take place within the cell

Centrioles

- Structure
o Barrel-shaped organelles oriented at right angles to each other
o Pair of cylindrical organelles consisting of 9 evenly spaced parallel units (triplets)
 each unit consists of 3 parallel microtubules
o Two centrioles can be found in the centrosome (a specialised area of the cytoplasm
where microtubule formation occurs found in the cell’s centre)
- Function
o Cell division
 Before cell division the two centrioles double in number , the centrosome
divides into 2 and one centrosome containing 2 centrioles moves to each
end of the cell
o Serves as centres for microtubule formation
o Determine cell polarity during cell division
o Form the basal bodies of cilia and flagella

Cilia

- Structure
o Whip-like, motile cellular extensions which project from the outer surfaces of certain
cells
o Extensions of the plasma membrane
- Function
o Movement of substances across the surface of cells
 Example: cilia lining the respiratory tract which move mucous out of the
lungs
 Cilia in the fallopian tubes of the female reproductive system which moves
the egg from the ovary to the uterus
 In both these example cilia movie in a coordinated fashion, with a power
stroke in one direction and a recovery stroke in the opposite direction

Flagella

- Structure
o Similar to cilia but longer
o Found in humans on sperm cells only (one flagellum per sperm)
o Unlike cilia which moves substances across the cell surface, flagella move the actual
cell itself (ie. The sperm cell)
- Function
o Motility
o Propels spermatozoa
Microvilli

- Structure
o Extensions of the plasma membrane
o Each cell has many microvilli usually
o 1/10-1/20th the size of cilia, hence micro
o Non-motile
- Function
o Increases surface area of the plasma membrane for absorption and secretion
 Example: absorptive cells of intestine or kidney tubules
o Modified to form sensory receptors
 Example: elongated microvilli in hair cells of inner ear respond to sound

Histology

- Study of tissues
- Aims to understand the microanatomy of cells, tissues and organs

Preparation of Tissue

- Remove the tissue from the body via a biopsy (taking a piece of tissue from the body and the
person that tissue came from will be alive ex. wart) or autopsy (the person is deceased)
- Tissue needs to be fixed
o Fixation: placing the tissue into a mixture of chemicals to stop any metabolic or
chemical reactions from taking place. Fixation preserves the cells and its surrounding
components with the chemicals used in fixation are generally known as Fixatives
 Example of fixative: formalin, a chemical mostly made formaldehyde
- Embedding of the tissue
o The tissue is infiltrated with wax and allowed to set so it becomes hard. It allows us
to cut the tissue into very thin pieces
- Slicing of the tissue and mounting tissue on a slide
o The tissues are embedded on a paraffin block (may only be 2 by 2cm) and then are
cut on an instrument called a microtome (it cuts tissue up into thin slices) after
which we can place it onto a microscope slide to view (less than a mm in thickness)
o The paraffin that surrounding the tissue is dissolved using chemicals after which the
tissue is then stained with dye

Haematoxylin and Eosin

- a stain
- when you stain a tissue with H and E, the nuclei are stained purple (From haematoxylin)
whereas other cell structure, including the cytoplasm are stained pink (eosin)

Points to consider when viewing histological images:

 - the plane the tissue has been cut in
- The magnification of the image

Primary Tissues

- All organs in the body contain all 4

primary tissue types
o Epithelial Tissue
-
 Cover and protect
surfaces both inside
and outside of the
body

 Characteristics of epithelial tissue

 Are sheets of epithelial cells that cover and protect surfaces inside
and outside of the body
o There is covering and lining epithelium. They usually form
boundaries between different environments (Ex. in the
epidermis of the skin it covers and protects your body,
acting as a boundary between the internal and external
environment)
o Epithelium which lines cavities such as the cavities of the
digestive system and respiratory system
o Glandular epithelium are the epithelial cells that form the
lining inside of the glands inside of your body (Example: the
salivary glands in your mouth are lined with epithelial cells)
 Distinct cell surfaces
o Free surface (the top surface) as it is not attached to any
other cells and is exposed. It often lines the lumen of ducts,
vessels and cavities
 can be smooth or folded, may have microvilli or cilia
 smooth surfaces reduce friction, both microvilli and
cilia are extensions of the cell and increase SA
o Lateral surface (side) which is normally attached to another
epithelial cells
o Basal surface (Basement membrane or basal lamina) (base)
a thin supporting sheet made of proteins secreted by the
epithelial cells on top of it.
 The basement membrane helps attach the epithelial
cells to the underlying tissue
 Supports and guides cell migration during tissue
repair
 Typically porous which allows substances to move
to and from the epithelial tissue above it
 Acts as a filter for the epithelium
 Avascular but innervated
 o Avascular means that the epithelium does not have a direct
supply of blood vessels as the blood vessels in the
underlying connective tissue do not penetrate the basement
membrane to reach the epithelial tissue. Therefore all
gasses and nutrients carried by the blood vessels must reach
the epithelium by diffusing from blood vessels across the
basement membrane
o Innervated means that it has a nerve supply
 Ability to regenerate
o High regenerative capacity in that epithelial cells can divide
and produce new cells
 Mostly composed of cells
o Epithelial tissue consists almost entirely of cells, with very
little extracellular matric between them
 Covers body cells
o Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces and forms glands that
are derived developmentally form body surfaces. These
include: the exterior surface, the lining of the digestive and
respiratory tracts, the heart and blood vessels and the
linings of many body cavities
 Functions of Epithelial Tissue
 Protecting underlying structure
o For example, the outer layer of the skin and the epithelium
of the oral cavity protect the underlying structures from
abrasion
 Acting as a Barrier
o Prevents many substances from moving through it
o Example: the skin acts as a barrier to water and reduces
water loss from the body, as well as preventing many toxic
molecules and microorganisms from entering the body
 Permitting the passage of substances
o Permits substances to move through it
o Example: Oxygen and CO2 are exchanged between the air
and blood by diffusion through the epithelium and lungs
 Secreting substances
o Mucous glands, sweat glands and the enzyme secreting
portions of the pancreas are all composed of epithelial cells
that secrete their products onto surfaces or into ducts that
carry them to other areas of the body
 Absorbing Substances
o The plasma membrane of certain epithelial tissues contain
carrier proteins which regulate the absorption of materials

 Epithelial Tissue Classification

 Classified according to the number of cells/ cell layer or the shape of
the cells
o Cell Layers
  Simple
 a single layer of cells
 Each cell extends from the basement
membrane to the free surface
 Stratifi
ed
 more than more layer of cells, often with
different shapes from the lowest layers
(often the base cells form a cube shape and
as you move upwards the cells become
flattened)
 basal layer attaches the deepest layer to the
basement membrane
 found where protection is a major function
as it is able to hinder the selective
movement of materials through the
epithelium
 multiple layers of cells in stratified
epithelium are well adapted for a protective
role as when the outer cells are damaged
they are replaced by cells from deeper
layers, thus a continuous barrier of
epithelial cells is maintained in the tissue
 Pseudostratified
 Refers to where it looks like there is more
than one layer of cells when in reality it is
one layer and the base of all cells sit
attached to the basement membrane
 You look at the number of nuclei to tell us
how many cells are actually there
o Cell Shapes
 Squamous
 These cells are thin and flat when seen from
the side and look like paving stones when
seen in a surface view
 Cuboidal
 Cube shapes so they appear quite square in
most views and usually have large round
nuclei
 Cells that secrete or absorb are usually
cuboidal or columnar as they have a greater
cytoplasmic volume to relative surface area
 Columnar
 Tall cells, usually with oval shaped nuclei
towards the base
 Transitional
  Can change from a taller cell (columnar) to
flatter cell (squamous or cuboidal) shapes
 Only found in the urinary system
o Simple Squamous
 Resembles a single layer of flattened cells with very
sparse cytoplasm
 Sort of looks like a tiled floor from the top and when
you cut it, it resembles a friend egg on the side
 Functions
 Diffusion
o Some substances can diffuse
through them easily as they are thin
and there is only one layer for
substances to diffuse through
 Filtration
o As the epithelium is thin
 Some secretion
 Locations
 Alveoli of the lungs (found in the lining of
the alveoli of the lungs where oxygen and

carbon dioxide diffuse quickly in and out of

the alveoli and the thinness of these cells
allows for this quick diffusion) , kidney
glomeruli (filtration of the blood, thinness of
cells allows for quick filtration), serous
membranes of pleura, pericardium and
peritoneum (serous membranes secrete
serous fluid which is found between the
parietal and visceral serosa so secretion of
this serous fluid via the simple squamous
cells in the serosa. Used in order to stop any
friction between moving organs in the body
wall)
o Simple Cuboidal
 One layer of cube shaped cells
 Some of these have microvilli or cilia
 Functions
 Absorption
o As cuboidal cells have microvilli they
have a absorptive function
 Secretion
o These cells are plump and thus have
the ability to produce secretions
much more effectively than
squamous
 Movement
o Comes from the cells having cilia on
top of them
 Location
 Kidney tubules (responsible for secretion
and absorption) and terminal bronchioles
(Contain cilia which aid in moving mucous
out of the bronchioles)
o Simple Columnar
 One layer of column shaped or tall cells with round
to oval nuclei
 Some cells have cilia

 Function
 Absorption
 Secretion
 Movement
 Location
 Intestine (absorption of nutrients via the
microvilli into the blood), stomach
(Secretion of mucous), fallopian tubes
(movement of the ovum aided by the
actions of the cilia through the fallopian
tubes), and lungs (movement of unwanted
particles and debris in the lung)
o Transitional Epithelium
 Resembles stratified squamous and stratified
cuboidal cells depending on its state (2 states)
 Functions
 Accommodate changes in fluid volume of
the organs. Depending on the fluid within
the organ, the state of the epithelium will
change
 Locations
  Urinary balder (when bladder is empty its
going to take on the stratified cuboidal state
however when the bladder begins to fill up
the epithelium will be stretched out and
becomes flatter to take on the state of
stratified squamous), ureter and upper part
of the urethra

o Stratified Squamous
 Many of the layers are flattened however the ones
towards the basement membrane take on a cube
form and as you move upwards the cells becomes
flatter and flatter
 Basal cells are cuboidal or columnar and become
progressively flatter (squamous) as you move to the
surface
 Several layers of cells
 Keratinized
 Keratin is a protein that makes things dry,
durable and long lasting
 Stratified squamous epithelium with keratin
makes the epithelium tough
 waterproof
 Non keratinized
 Not as tough
 A layer of fluid covers the outermost layers
of the cells making them moist
 Functions
 Protect the underlying tissue from abrasion
 Protection from loss of water
 Location
 Keratinized: soles of feet, palm of hands,
skin (lots of friction)
 Non-keratinized: mouth, oesophagus, anus
and vagina (lots of friction in these areas
therefore many layers of cells is required as
protection but don’t need waterproofing as

they are already moist)

o Stratified Cuboidal
 Several layers of cubed shaped cells
 Rare
 Functions
 Absorption
o Might have microvilli
 Secretion
o Cell is cubed shaped and plumped
and thus can make secretions
 Protection
o Many layers
 Location
 Ducts of sweat glands, ducts of salivary
glands and developing ovum

o Stratified Columnar
 Several layers of column shaped cells
  Rare
 Functions
 Secretion and protection
o Secretion since its tall and thus
ability to produce and secrete
o Protective as there are many layers

 Location
Ducts of mammary glands, larynx

o Pseudostratified columnar
 Single layer of column shaped cells with differing
heights where some cells may not extend all the
way to the surface
 Nuclei are all over the place
  Cells are ciliated (have cilia)
 Functions
 Secretion
o Column shaped so it has a secretive
ability
 Movement
o Comes from the cilia that lines the
surface
 Locations
 Pharynx and trachea (cells produce mucous
to trap unwanted particles and cilia will
carry mucous away), male sperm carrying
ducts (cells might produce secretion for
sperm maturation and the cilia will move
the secretions out of the male reproductive
system)

o Exceptions to the Rule

 These epithelial cell combinations do not exist
 Simple transitional
 Stratified transitional
 Pseudostratified squamous, cuboidal,
transitional
o Connective Tissue
 Support
 Most abundant and widely distributed primary tissue in the body
 Function
 Enclosing and separating other tissues
o Sheets of connective tissue form capsules around organs,
such as the liver and kidneys
o Connective tissue also forms layers that separate tissues and
organs
 Example: connective tissue separate muscles,
arteries, venins and nerves from one another
 Connecting Tissues to one another
o Strong cables, or bands of connective tissue called tendons
attach muscles to bone, whereas connective tissue bands
called ligaments hold bones together
 Supporting and moving parts of the body
o Bones of the skeletal system provide rigid support for the
body, and the semi-rigid cartilage supports structures such
as the nose, ears and joint surfaces
o Joints between bones allow one part of the body to move
relative to other parts
 Storing Compounds
 o Adipose tissue (Fat) stores high-energy molecules, and
bones store minerals such as calcium and phosphate
 Provides energy so if the body needs energy adipose
in the body can be broken down for a energy source
 Cushioning and insulating
o Adipose tissue cushions and protects the tissue it surrounds
and provides an insulating layer beneath the skin that helps
conserve heat
 Example: Adipose tissue surrounds the kidneys and
are used for protection in case of impact
 Example: underneath the skin adipose tissue helps
conserve body heat
 Transporting
o Blood (considered a connective tissue) transports the gases,
nutrients enzymes, hormones and cells of the immune
system throughout the body
 Protecting
o cells of the immune system and blood protect against toxins
and tissue injury, as well as against micro-organisms
o bones protect underlying structures from injury
 Connects and binds together, supports, strengthens, protects,
insulates, compartmentalises, transports and provides energy
 Location
 Found in all organs and parts of the body but its amount varies
 Cells of Connective Tissue
 The specialised cells (cells, ground substance and fibres) of the
various connective tissues produce the extracellular matrix
o Ground Substance of Connective Tissue
 Fills the space between the cells of the connective
tissue and the space where the fibres are suspended
 Hyaluronic acid makes fluids slippery
 Proteoglycan aggregates trap water which gives
tissues the capacity to return to their original shape
when compressed or deformed
 Adhesive molecules hold proteoglycans together
and to plasma membranes
o Fibres of the Connective Tissue
 Collagen Fibres
 Strong, flexible and resist stretching
 Collagen fibrins are joined to form collagen
fibres
 Collagen fibres resemble ropes
 Elastic Fibres
 This protein has the ability to return to its
original shape after being stretched or
compressed
  the elastin network stretches like a rubber
band in response to force and recoils when
relaxed
 provide elasticity of the skin, lungs and the
arteries
 Reticular Fibres
 fine collagen fibres that form a branching
network that supports other cells and
tissues
 Blasts: create the matrix
 Cytes: maintain the matrix
 Clasts: break it down for remodelling
o example: osteoblasts form bone, osteocytes maintain it and
osteoclasts break it down
o Fibroblasts are cells that form fibrous connective tissue and
fibrocytes maintain it
 Secrete fibres and ground substance
o Chondroblasts form cartilage and chondrocytes maintain it
o Adipocytes also called adipose cells, contain large amounts
of lipid
 energy source and cushioning
 The lipid pushes the rest of the cell contents to the
periphery (edge) so that each cell appears to
contains a large, centrally located lipid droplet with
a thin layer of cytoplasm around it
 Mast Cells
o Play an important prole in inflammation
o Contain chemicals such as heparin, histamine and
proteolytic enzymes, that are released in response to injury,
such as trauma and infection
o Commonly lie beneath membranes in loose connective
tissue and along small blood vessels of organs
 White Blood Cells
o Continuously move from blood vessels into connective
tissues
o Rate of movement increases dramatically in response to
injury and infection
o Accumulations of lymphocytes, are common in some
connective tissues such as beneath the epithelial lining of
certain parts of the digestive system
 Macrophages
o Large, phagocytic cells found in some connective tissue
types
o Derived from monocytes
o Either fixed (do not move through the connective tissue) or
wandering (move in ameboid fashion through the
connective tissue)
 o Phagocytize foreign and injured cells and play a major role in
protecting against infections
 Platelets
o Contain enzymes and proteins that function in the clotting
process to reduce bleeding from a wound
 Classes of Connective Tissue
 Connective Tissue Proper
o Dense
 Regular
 Functions
o Attachment
o Resist stretching and give tissue
strength
 Location
o Composed of fibres arranged in one
direction which provide strength in
a direction parallel to the fibre
orientation
o Forms structures such as tendons
(connects muscles to bones)
o Forms structures such as ligaments
(connects bones to bones)
 Irregular
 Function
o Provides strength and stretching
 Location
o Has fibres organised in many
directions and thus provides
strength in different direction
o Found in the skin’s dermis
o Fibrous coverings surrounding your
bones, cartilage, muscles and
nerves
 Elastic
 Functions
o Has high recoil and strength
 Locations
o Walls of the arteries
o Ligaments between spinal vertebrae
o Loose
 Areolar
 Functions
o Loosing packing material of most
organs and other tissues, support
and binding other tissues
o Attaches the skin to underlying
tissues
 o Contains collagen, reticular and
elastic fibres and a variety of cells
 Locations
o Widely distributed throughout the
body
o Example: the connective tissue that
epithelia of skin rests on
 Adipose
 Functions
o Nutrient-storying ability (energy
storage)
 Brown adipose tissue is
specialised to generate heat
as a result of the
metabolism of lipid
molecules in the
mitochondria.
o Contains a large amount of lipid and
are usually arranged in clusters
separated from one another by
loose connective tissue
o Protective
o Shock absorption and protection
o Insulation
 Locations
o Fat beneath the skin, surrounding
the kidneys, breasts, abdomen and
hips
 Reticular
 Function
o Forms a framework to support free
blood cells (white blood cells, mast
and macrophage cells)
 Location
o Lymph nodes
o Spleen
o Bone marrow
o Mainly found in lymphoid organs
meaning they have a role in
immunity or protecting the body
from infection. The reticular
framework of this type of
connective tissue supports the
blood cells which are all involved in
fighting against infections
 Cartilage
o Made of cartilage cells within a rigid matrix
 o Avascular (no blood vessels) and not innervated (aging or
old cartilage cant divide and any injured cartilage heals
slowly as blood containing nutrients and oxygen for tissue
repair cannot reach the damaged cartilage so easily.
Therefore blood reaches the cartilage through epithelial
cells that surround it)
o Function
 Provides protection, flexibility, rigidity and is
capable of withstanding pressure
o Location and Types
 Hyaline Cartilage: most abundant and found in the
rib cage (connects sternum to ribs), trachea,
articulating surfaces of the bones (when 2 bones are
in contact with each other there is a bit of cartilage
between them to stop any friction) and the nose
 Found where strong support and some
flexibility are needed
 Fibrocartilage: found in intervertebral discs and
pubic symphysis
 Has collagen fibres arranged in thick
bundles
 Found in places that have to withstand
heavy pressure as it is slightly compressible
and very tough
 Elastic Cartilage
 Found in areas which have to maintain
shape whilst still allowing flexibility
 Contains elastin
 Found in ear and epiglottis
 Bone
o Hard connective tissue that consists of living cells and
mineralised matrix
o Supports and protects body structures
o Osteocytes (bone cells) reside in lacunae (holes within the
matrix)
o Two Types:
 Spongy Bone: the bony matrix of the bone and is
found at ends of long bone, sternum, vertebrate
and pelvis
 Compact Bone: makes up the outer portion of the
bone and is found in the shaft of the long bone
  Blood
o Atypical connective tissue in that it does not provide
support or connect anything
o Mostly red blood cell (erythrocytes) and scattered white
blood cells (leucocytes) and platelets (blood clotting)
o Its fluid matrix allows it to flow rapidly through the body
transporting nutrients, wastes and respiratory gases around
the body

o Muscle Tissue
 Movement
 Contracts and shortens and therefore is responsible for movement
 Highly cellular, well vascularised (great blood supply) and responsible for
most body movement (by the process of contraction)
 3 types
 Skeletal
o Muscles attached to the bones of the skeleton
o When skeletal bone contracts it pulls on the bone creating
movement
o Muscle cells are called muscle fibres
o Muscle cells are multinucleated and these nuclei sit on the
periphery (outer edge) of the individual muscle cells
o Striated (has linear marks on it, have bands that go from top
to the bottom)
  This banded appearance comes from myofilament
which are microscopic structures which bring about
the movement of the muscle
o Mostly under voluntary control but involuntary movements
can occur with skeletal muscle due to the nervous system
(ex. Twitching, reflexive actions)
 Cardiac
o Only found in the walls of the heart where it is responsible
for pumping blood around the body
 The contraction of cardiac muscle aids in the
movement of blood around the body
o Striated muscle with intercalated disks
 Has banded appearance however have intercalated
disks in the branches where the muscle cells join
together
 Intercalated disks are responsible for making sure
your cardiac muscles contract in a coordinated
fashion (at the same time)
o Have lots of mitochondria to produce enough energy to
allow the heart to continuously keep pumping
o Under involuntary control
 Smooth
o Found mainly in the walls of hollow organs (Ex. Stomach,
bladder, uterus, blood vessels)
o No striations and have a single nucleus per muscle cells
o Ends are tapered (become narrower towards the end)
o Under involuntary control
o Nervous Tissue
 Control
 Nervous system is made out of the:
 Brain
 Spinal chord
 Nerves
 Nervous tissue is the main component of the nervous system

 Neurons (nerve cells)

o Highly specialised cells which generate and conduct nerve
impulses via electrical or chemical signals
o Cell body (soma)
o Dendrites
 Input regions, structures that receive signals and
pass on incoming signals to the nucleus
o Axon
 Conducts or transmits information
 Generates information in the form of nerve
impulses and transmits this information away from
the cell body
o Both dendrites and axons consist of projections of
cytoplasm surrounded by membrane
 Supporting cells (neuroglia)
o Nourish, insulates and protect the neurons