Human Anatomy and Physiology Mod 2 (lec): cells
 has two components:
CELLS
 The average human body consists of more than
100 trillion cells
 Cells perform various functions that aid in
maintaining homeostasis or a state of balance in
our body,
 Some of the functions of our cells include:
a) Cell metabolism and energy use
b) Synthesis of molecules
c) Communication
d) Reproduction and inheritance
 Cytology or Cell Biology is a branch of
science that deals with the study of cells.
 The cell is the basic living structural and
functional unit of all organisms.
 Each cell is a highly organized unit and within the
cells are called organelles or little organs
which are specialized structures that perform
specific functions.
short historical background
 was coined by Robert Hooke wherein he
observed a piece of cork under the microscope
 he saw a series of walled small boxes and
compared it with the small rooms where monks
stayed in known as “cellula” hence, the term cell.
Division of cells
cell or plasma membrane
 Is the outermost part of the cell which
encloses the cytoplasm
 It is the structure that serves as the boundary
between the extracellular and intracellular
substances or the substances outside of the cell
 Selectively permeable barrier which
regulates the flow of substances into and out
of the cell.
 Serves an important role in communication
between and among cells
Cytoplasm
 is the living material surrounding the nucleus
 it houses all cellular contents between the
plasma membrane and the nucleus
a) Cytosol
− also known as the intracellular fluid
− it is the fluid portion of the cytoplasm
b) Organelles
− are specialized structures — each
having a characteristic shape and
function
nucleus
 Is one of the organelles of the cell that
contains the DNA
 A single molecule of DNA or the chromosome
contain hereditary units called the genes which
control most of our cellular functions.
Cell/plasma membrane
 Its structure is described to have a fluid mosaic
model due to its molecular arrangement allowing
the continuous movement or flow of fluid lipids that
contain a mosaic
− Mosaic: a variety of many different proteins
 Its structural framework is its lipid bilayer
composed of three different types of lipid
molecules:
a) Phospholipids: make up about 75%
of the membrane
b) Cholesterol: makes up about 20%
c) glycolipids make up about 5%
 This bilayer arrangement of the plasma membrane
occurs because of the amphipathic nature of the
lipid components.
− Amphipathic: these lipid molecules both
have hydrophilic (water-loving) or polar parts
and hydrophobic or nonpolar parts.
o Now the hydrophilic part of
phospholipids is its head, thereby facing
outward towards each side: towards the
extracellular fluid and cytosol
o Its tails made up of fatty acids which
are the
hydrophobic
part point
towards one
another facing
the interior of
each half of
the bilayer.
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 Human Anatomy and Physiology Mod 2 (lec): cells

− They are either attached to the polar heads

of the membrane lipids or to the integral
proteins
− May also help in supporting the plasma
membrane, facilitate movement of substances
and organelles, and also in cell attachment

FUNCTIONS:

1. ion channels (INTEGRAL)

− are integral membrane proteins so these
channels pores or holes are selective and
allow only a single type of ion to pass
through

FUNCTIONS:
1. Acts a barrier: to separate intracellular and
extracellular components
2. It controls the flow of substances into and
out of the cell
3. It helps in cell identification such as the
case for immune cells
4. Participates in intercellular signaling or 2. Carriers (INTEGRAL)
communication between cells − these carriers or transporters selectively move
substances from one side of the membrane to
membrane proteins the other by changing its shape to
accommodate the substance it carries
 Play an important role in how a cell performs its
function and these membrane proteins may either
be integral or peripheral depending on
how they are firmly embedded in the bilayer.

3. receptors (INTEGRAL)
− serve as cellular recognition sites they
recognize specific ligands (specific
integral membrane proteins molecules that bind two receptors)
− Extend into or through the bilayer and they
are firmly embedded in it so they fully
penetrate the bilayer
− Most of the integral proteins are
transmembrane proteins meaning they span
and protrude the entire bilayer

peripheral membrane proteins

− Are not as firmly embedded in the bilayer
compared with the integral proteins

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 Human Anatomy and Physiology Mod 2 (lec): cells
4. Enzymes (INTEGRAL & peripheral)
− catalyzes biochemical reactions
5. linkers (INTEGRAL & peripheral)
− encore proteins in the plasma membranes of
neighboring cells to one another or two
protein filaments
6. cell identity markers
(glycoproteins)
− can enable a cell to recognize other cells in
times of tissue formation or as a response to
foreign cells
membrane fluidity
 If you will recall the structure of the membrane is
fluid — the membrane lipids and membrane
proteins can easily move and rotate in the bilayer
 Fluidity depends on the following factors:
1) Number of double bonds in the fatty acid
tails
2) Amount of cholesterol present
3) Temperature
o In lower temperatures, there is a tendency
that phospholipids go rigid.
o In higher temperatures, they become too
fluid.
o In these cases, cholesterol comes to the
rescue. (Low temp: increases the fluidity;
High temp: decreases fluidity)
o Cholesterol holds the phospholipids
together
and it
serves as a
buffer.
 There is a sense of balance in the fluidity of the
membrane
▪ Too rigid/stiff: would be difficult to
facilitate movement; no flow of movement
▪ Completely fluid: there would be no
structural organization and mechanical
support; no structure and support formed
 Membrane fluidity is essential for different
interactions to occur inside the cell
▪ It contributes to allowing movement of
different substances responsible for cellular
processes
▪ It also allows the lipid bilayer to seal itself
when punctured or injured, like in the gif below
(alalahanin mo nalang HMP)
 Picture: this is intracytoplasmic sperm
injection where a sperm cell can be injected
into an oocyte without bursting; it allows the
membrane fluidity allows the lipid bilayer to seal
itself when punctured or injured
membrane permeability
SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY
 this means that the plasma membrane allows
the passage of some substances more readily
than others, hence the word selective,
transmembrane proteins
 in order for the membrane to become
permeable to other ions and uncharged polar
substances, transmembrane proteins may act
as channels and carriers
 these channels and carriers are selective
as well and each one helps a specific
molecule or ion to pass through the
membrane.
HYDROPHOBIC INTERIOR
 the more hydrophobic or lipid soluble a
substance is the greater is the membrane's
permeability to that substance
 if a substance is hydrophobic or lipid soluble it
is easier for them to pass through the
membrane — more permeable,
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 Human Anatomy and Physiology Mod 2 (lec): cells

PROPERTIES OF PLASMA MEMBRANE movement and organization of the cell and its
SELECTIVE The plasma membrane allows contents
PERMEABILITY some substances to pass more  three protein filaments:
readily than others 1) Microfilaments
TRANSMEMBRANE Act as channels and carriers to − Which are the thinnest
PROTEINS increase membrane permeability − Composed of actin and myosin
HYDROPHOBIC Allows nonpolar molecules, but (proteins)
INTERIOR not other ions and large,
− Their functions are to help generate
uncharged polar molecules
movement such as in muscle contraction
and provide mechanical support for the
HIGHLY MODERATELY IMPERMEABLE strength, shape of cells, and for cell
PERMEABLE PERMEABLE extensions called the microvilli
Oxygen Water (polar) Glucose − Microvillus (singular form) or
Carbon dioxide Urea (polar) Large, uncharged microvilli (plural form) are finger-like
polar molecules projections of the membrane and they
Steroids increase the surface area of the cell that is
why they are mostly found in cells involved
in absorption such as in the small intestine.
− Anchor the cytoskeleton to integral
proteins in the plasma membrane
▪ Water and urea are considered polar
molecules
2) Intermediate Filaments
o They are still able to pass through the
− Are thicker than microfilaments but
membrane because when the membrane
thinner than microtubules
phospholipids move due to their fluidity, small
− These filaments are considered strong
gaps may appear
so they are mostly found on parts of cells
o Since water and urea molecules are just small,
that are subject to mechanical stress
even though they are polar, they can still move
through the membrane via these small gaps − Also help stabilize the position of the
▪ Substances that are considered impermeable are organelles and in cells attachment to one
another
glucose and other large uncharged
polar molecules such as proteins which
3) Microtubules which are the thickest
are too large that they are unable to go across the
membrane except via endocytosis and exocytosis − Are the largest of all three
− They are mainly composed of the protein
tubulin
cytoplasm − The assembly of microtubules begins in the
centrosome and they grow outward from
 Contains all the contents of the cell located the centrosome towards the periphery of
between the plasma membrane and the nucleus the cell
 It has two components: the cytosol and the − These filaments contribute to the
organelles determination of the cell shape and in the
movement of organelles
Cytosol or intracellular fluid
 Is the fluid portion of the cytoplasm and it MICRO • Actin and • Muscle
constitutes about 55% of the total cell volume FILAMENTS Myosin contraction,
• Movement cell division,
 This is where many chemical reactions take place
and cell
for a cell to survive
mechanical locomotion
support
cytoskeleton (microvilli)
− a network of protein filaments that extend • Anchor the
throughout the cytosol cytoskeleton
− has three protein filaments that serve as a to integral
scaffold or platform which proteins
contributes in the structure, shape, and

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 Human Anatomy and Physiology Mod 2 (lec): cells

INTERMEDIATE • Stabilizes the Parts of cells Nucleus

FILAMENTS position of subject to − Contains the genetic material the DNA and
organelles the nucleoli
MICRO • Assembly Movement of − Site of RNA synthesis and ribosomal subunit
TUBULES begins in the organelles assembly
centrosome
• Tubulin
Ribosomes
• Determine
− Are the sites of protein synthesis
cell shape
− Some ribosomes are attached in the nuclear
membrane and to the ER so hence the rough
organelles ER
− While some are free some are free or
 Organelles or little organs are specialized
unattached in the cytosol
structures that perform specific functions
− There are also ribosomes found in found
 They are functional compartments for specific
within the mitochondria
biochemical processes and they help in maintaining
homeostasis
ROUGH ER
− Is continuous with the nuclear membrane and
its outer surface is full of ribosomes
− It synthesizes glycoproteins and
phospholipids thus producing secretory
proteins membrane proteins and other
proteins of organelles

SMOOTH ER
− Extends from the rough ER but it does not
have ribosomes anymore (kaya smooth na)
− It synthesizes fatty acids and steroids
such as estrogen and testosterone
− Also participates in detoxification of harmful
substances such as alcohol and carcinogens
− An enzyme produced by the smooth ER also
removes the phosphate group from glucose-6-
phosphate so that the free glucose may enter
the bloodstream
− In muscle cells a form of smooth endoplasmic
reticulum known as the sarcoplasmic
reticulum releases calcium ions which are
responsible for triggering contraction

golgi apparatus or golgi complex

− Modifies, sorts, packages, and transports
proteins received from the rough ER
− Packages proteins into membrane sacs or
secretory vesicles
o These secretory vesicles pinch off from the
golgi apparatus
o It fuses with the cell membrane and it
releases its contents into the extracellular
fluid by the process of exocytosis

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 Human Anatomy and Physiology Mod 2 (lec): cells

lysosome Flagella or flagellum

− Are formed from golgi apparatus and they − Moves an entire cell
contain digestive enzymes and hydrolytic which generates a
enzymes that break down molecules forward motion by
− Also digest worn out cell structures in the rapidly wiggling
process known as autophagy through the use − Propel sperm cells
of a vesicle known as the autophagosome
− Lysosomes may also destroy the entire cell Microvilli
which can occur in some pathological − Are finger-like
conditions and also in death → this process is projections that
called autolysis increase the surface
− Also involved in extracellular digestion area of cells

Centriole
− Facilitates the movement of chromosomes nucleus
during cell division  Contains the genetic material of the cell which are
located on chromosomes
centrosome
− Is a pair of centrioles and a pericentriolar
material which contains the protein tubulin
and it forms the microtubules and the
mitotic spindle during cell division

peroxisome
− Are also called microbodies
− They contain several oxidases that break
down fatty acids amino acids and hydrogen
peroxide and they aid in the detoxification of
harmful substances such as alcohol

mitochondrion (mitochondria)
− Powerhouse of the cell
− These are the major sites of ATP synthesis and
the site of aerobic cellular respiration
− Play an important role in apoptosis or the
genetically programmed death of a cell
− They even have their own DNA
− A mitochondrion has an outer and inner
mitochondrial membrane
▪ inner membrane: have a series of
folds known as the cristae, which provides
a large surface area for cellular respiration
to take place
cilia or cilium Are short hair like projections
that extend from the surface of the cell
− Move substances/fluids along the surface of the
cell
nuclear envelope
− which is a double membrane and both layers
are lipid bilayer as well like the plasma
membrane
− this separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm
− openings of the nuclear membrane called
nuclear pores control the movement of
substances between the nucleus and the
cytoplasm
nucleolus or nucleoli
− are spherical bodies which are responsible for
the production of ribosomes
− are the sites of ribosomal RNA synthesis
and the assembly of RRNA or ribosomal RNA
and proteins

FUNCTIONS:
1. Control of cellular structure
2. Directing cellular activities
3. Producing ribosomes in the nucleoli

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 Human Anatomy and Physiology Mod 2 (lec): cells

GENE EXPRESSION AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS Cellular pathophysiology

Gene
− are hereditary units of
cilia
the cell which control
the cellular structures  Cilia are found in many cells of the respiratory
and activities so they tract in smokers the movement of cilia may be
are arranged along paralyzed or stopped due to the nicotine
chromosomes present in cigarettes
 That is why smokers usually cough to remove
chromosomes foreign particles stuck in their airways because
− are long molecules of there is no functioning cilia to do it for them
DNA coiled together  For female smokers, they may be in trouble they
with proteins may be in trouble as well because cilia is present in
− this is where genes are located the cells of their fallopian tubes
 Since the cilia is paralyzed or stopped the
chromatin movement of cilia is paralyzed there is a possibility
− are loosely coiled chromosomes which are a that the egg cells will not be moved towards the
complex of DNA some RNA and proteins that uterus causing ectopic pregnancy
appear like beads on a string structure under
electron micrographs and each bead is called SMOOTH ER
a nucleosome
 Those who take a particular sedative drug known
as the phenobarbital may cause changes in
nucleosome
− consists of a double-stranded DNA wrapped the liver cells
twice around a histone  As you may recall smooth endoplasmic reticulum
helps in detoxification
histones  If a person has been using phenobarbital for so
− are a core of eight proteins that help in long there may be increased tolerance
organizing the coiling and folding of DNA ▪ Meaning the same dose of the drug no longer
shows the same effect
genome  The repeated exposure to the drug causes the
− is the term to refer to the total genetic smooth er and its enzymes to increase to be able
information carried in a cell to still protect the cells from toxic effects
 So, this can possibly result in overdose and
increased dependence on drugs
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS review
lysosomes
 the double-stranded DNA will unwind and one
strand serves as the template strand for the MRN  Connected with taysach's disease or tsd
(messenger RNA)  Taysach's Disease is an inherited condition wherein
 Next, the nucleotides that will form the MRNA will there is absence of a lysosomal enzyme known as
bind with the DNA nucleotides through base pair hex a
combinations ▪ This enzyme is known to break down a
 the sequence of nucleotides in the template DNA membrane glycolipid prevalently found in
strand determines the sequence of nucleotides in nerve cells
the MRNA  In TSD, there is no enzyme to break down this
 Now the newly formed MRNA molecule will now glycolipid and so, there is accumulation which
go to the ribosome causes the nerve cells to function less effectively
 The ribosome aligns the MRNA with the TRNA((  That is why people
transfer RNA) containing the appropriate anti- with TSD develop
codons seizures muscle
 The formation of a peptide bond between amino rigidity, blindness,
acids bound to the TRNA allows the creation of a and
polypeptide chain uncoordination

✧ ig: @aweglay |BSMT 2-a ✧ 7

 Human Anatomy and Physiology Mod 2 (lec): cells
cancer
 Is a group of diseases characterized by
uncontrolled or abnormal cell growth
 The study of cancer or tumors is termed
oncology
 Now a tumor or a neoplasm develops
from excess tissues when there is uncontrolled
division of in a certain part of the body
 They may be diagnosed as benign (harmless) or
malignant (cancerous)
▪ Most of malignant tumors have a property of
metastasizing or metastasis where the cancer
cells have already spread to other parts of the
body
19:58
types of cancer
The name of cancer is derived from the type of tissue in
which it develops.
1. Carcinoma
− most human cancers are in this form
− this is cancer that arises from epithelial cells
2. melanoma
− are cancers of the melanocytes or the skin
epithelial cells that produce melanin
3. sarcoma
− are cancers arising from muscle cells or
connective tissues
4. leukemia
− is cancer of the blood where there is rapid
growth of abnormal white blood cells
5. lymphoma
− which is cancer of the lymphatic tissues such as
the lymph nodes
GROWTH AND SPREAD OF CANCER
Malignant cells divide or duplicate rapidly.
angiogenesis
− is triggered to form when cancer cells invade
surrounding tissues
− this is defined as the growth of new networks
of blood vessels
− is stimulated by proteins called as TAFS or the
tumor angiogenesis factors
− may be due to the overproduction of the TAFS
or if there are no angiogenesis inhibitors
naturally occurring in the body, cancer tissues
compete with normal tissues for space and
nutrients and may even invade other body
tissues to establish more tumors
− cancer patients feel pain mainly because
tumors may be pressing down on their nerves
or they may be blocking passageways in
organs and these may result to the death of
tissues and organs as well
causes of cancer
1. environmental agents
− Substances in the air, food, water
2. carcinogens
− which are chemicals or radiation that are
cancer-causing and mutation inducing so
− Examples: e hydrocarbons in cigarettes, radon
gas, and UV radiation
3. oncogenes (cancer-causing genes)
− proliferation of cells such as the case in human
papillomavirus or HPV which may lead to
cervical cancer in women
4. inflammation
− chronic inflammation stimulates the
proliferation of mutated cells and this may lead
to angiogenesis and metastasis
− Example: would be chronic gastritis or the
inflammation of the stomach lining which can
lead to stomach cancer
TREATMENT of cancer
Various treatments are available for cancer but it is not
easy since cancer is not a single disease. Each kind is
different from the other so although some treatments show
promising results, further research are still needed to treat
cancer and stop it from coming back
1. surgical removal
− Removal of cancer-causing tumors through
surgery
− Not applicable for all especially for cancers
that are already widely distributed throughout
the body or those that involve the brain, which
has too many essential functions
2. Chemotherapy
− the administration of drugs to kill cancer cells
3. radiation therapy
− blocks cell division by breaking chromosomes
— this is to target cancer cells since they
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 Human Anatomy and Physiology Mod 2 (lec): cells

proliferate rapidly since cancer cells multiply

rapidly
− however there are also other normal cells that
divide rapidly such as hair, hair follicles, bone
marrow cells, and cells in the gastrointestinal
tract
▪ that is why most effects of these therapies are
hair loss, immunocompromisity, nausea and
vomiting

4. Virotherapy
− currently a developing potential treatment
wherein viruses are used to kill cancer cells
− for example, receptors that can only be found
in cancer cells are attached to viruses so they
will only be the ones infected by the virus

5. metastasis
− potential treatment under development
− metastasis regulatory genes wherein we hope
to stop or to control the ability of cells from
metastasizing

terminologies
anaplasia
− is defined as the loss of tissue differentiation
and function

atrophy
− is a decrease in the size of cells

dysplasia
− is a change in size, shape, and organization of
the cell and may progress to neoplasia

hyperplasia
− is increased in the number of cells

hypertrophy
− is the increase in the size of the cells without
cell division

metaplasia
− which is the transformation of one cell type to
another

proteomics
− this is the study of all of an organism's proteins
for identification

tumor markers
 are defined as substances that are introduced by
tumor cells they are used to screen, diagnose,
monitor, and treat cancer/

✧ ig: @aweglay |BSMT 2-a ✧ 9