Unit II.

The Cell Structure:

S.L.O. At the end of the unit the student should be able to:
1. Explain the cell theory.
2. Differentiate eukaryotic from prokaryotic cell
3. Explain the function of each part of the eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell.
4. Identify the different categories of microorganisms and utilize the standard
method of expressing their names.

Definition:

Cell – is the fundamental living unit of any organism; like any organism, it exhibits the
basic characteristics of life
 obtains food from the environment to produce energy and nutrients for
metabolism.

Metabolism – is an inclusive term to describe all the chemical reactions by which food is
transformed for use by the cells.

Cytology – the study of the structure and functions of cells.

The Cell Theory:

States that:
“All living things are composed of cells, that must arise
from preexisting cells”

“Every living thing is made up of a cell or multiple cells

“The cell is the basic unit of life”
“The cell come up via cell division”

Matthias Schlieden]
Theodore Schwan] = proposed the cell theory in 1838, German
biologists
Rudolf Virchow - completed the cell theory with the idea that cells
must arise from preexisting cells.

Robert Hooke –first to use the term “cells”in the mid- 7 th century.

Basic Characteristics of a Cell:

 Obtains foods from the environment to produce energy and
nutrients for metabolism.
 Can grow and reproduce
  Can respond to changes in the environment such as light, cold ,heat and presence
of chemicals.
 It can mutate (change) as a result of accidental changes in its genetic material –
the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) which makes up the gene of the chromosomes –
and thus become better or less suited into its environment.
 the changes make the mutant organism to be better adapted for survival and
development into a new species of organism.

Classifications/ Types:

Cells can be classified into:

1. Eucaryons/ Eukaryotic cells
Generics:
EU – true
Karyo – nut or nucleus
 so named because they have true nucleus enclosed by a nuclear
membrane.
 Are complex cells with nucleus and many organelles. These includes:
1. Protozoa 3. Algae
2. Fungi 4. Plants

2. Procaryons/ Prokaryotic Cells-

 structurally very simple cell.
 no complex system of membranes and organelles found in more
advanced single celled organism. These include: Bacteria and
cyanobacter

Virus – the result of regressive or reverse evolution because

they are composed only of few genes protected by a
protein coat and sometimes few enzymes.
 depends only on the energy and metabolic machinery
of the host cell to reproduce.
 Are not truly viable cells.
 They are acellular.

Parts of The Cell:

A. Eukaryotic Cell:

1. Cell membrane – often called the plasma membrane or the cellular membrane.
 composed of large molecules of protein and phospholipids. The large
molecules regulate the passage of nutrients, waste products and secretions
across the cellular membrane.
  Has property of selective permeability because only certain substances may
enter and leave the cell. The membrane is similar to all other membranes in
structure and function, that are part of the organelles of eukaryotic cells.

Functions
 The plasma membrane is selectively permeable i.e. it allows only selected
substances to pass through.
 It protects the cells from shock and injuries.
 The fluid nature of the membrane allows the interaction of molecules within the
membrane. It is also important for secretion, cell growth, and division etc.
 It allows transport of molecules across the membrane. This transport can be of
two types:
o Active transport – This transport occurs against the concentration gradient
and therefore, requires energy. It also needs carrier proteins and is a highly
selective process.
o Passive transport – This transport occurs along the concentration gradient
and therefore, does not require energy. Thus, it does not need carrier
proteins and is not selective.

2. The Nucleus – the organelles with in the cell that unifies, controls and integrates the
functions of the entire cell.
 contains the chromosomes.:
 nuclear membrane – the membrane that encloses the nucleus.
 Chromosomes – where the genetic control lies.
The specie of the microorganism can be determined by the
number of chromosomes and genes. Ex. Human cells contains
46 chromosomes with a thousand of genes each.
 Genes – unit that codes or determines the traits
of an individual.
 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)- found to be
coiled strands when gene is broken apart chemically. Contains
the genetic information for the production of essential proteins
that will enable the cell to function properly.
 Chromatin material – loosely wound strands of
chromosomes suspended in the nucleoplasm which is the
nutrient gelatinous matrix or base material. Condenses into
tightly coiled chromosomes just before the cell divides.
 Nucleolus – the very dense dark area where
ribosomes are manufactured before they move
into the cytoplasmic portion of the cell.

3. Cytoplasm – the cellular material outside the nucleus but enclosed by the cell
membrane; composed of semifluid gelatinous nutrient matrix and cytoplasmic
organelles.
 does most of the normal work of the cell.
  Is controlled by information carried in the DNA of the nucleus.
The cytoplasmic organelles include:
a. endoplasmic reticulum
b. ribosomes
c. Golgi apparatus
d. mitochondria
e. centrioles
f. microtubules
g. lysosomes
h. vacuoles

3.1. Endoplasmic reticulum – a system of membranes

interconnected and arranged to form a network of
tubules connecting outside the cell to the nucleus.
 transports nutrients to the nucleus and provides structural support for the cell.

3.2. Ribosomes – are structures that is attached to the outer

surface of the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum, giving rough appearance
(rough endoplasmic reticulum) The rough appearance is due to the may ribosomes
attached to the outer surface of the membranes.
 consists of mainly RNA (ribosomal ribonucleic acid) and play an important
role in the synthesis of essential proteins for the use by the cell and elsewhere
in the organism.

3.3. Golgi Apparatus/ Golgi body/ Golgi Complex

 connects or communicates with the endoplasmic reticulum;
completes the synthesis of secretory products and packages
them into small sacs called vesicles for storage or export
outside the cell.
3.4. Lysosomes – small sacs that originate from golgi
apparatus that contain lysozymes.
 Lysozyme – the enzyme that breakdown foreign
material taken into the cell by phagocytosis.
- also aid the breakdown of worn out parts
of the cell and may destroy the entire cell
by process of autolysis.
Phagocytosis – the process of engulfing of large particles
by phagocytes.
Autolysis – the process of destroying the entire cell, if the
cell is damaged or deteriorating.
 ATP (adenosine triphosphate) – a high- energy phosphate
molecules (a chemical) formed to supply energy for cellular
function.
3.5. Mitochondria – the “power plants” or energy factories of the
cell where most energy carrying ATP molecules are formed by
“cellular respiration”.
  the number of mitochondria in the cell varies depending upon
the activities required of that cell.
3.6. Centrioles – 2 cylindrical organelles that lie perpendicular to
each other near the nucleus.
 involved in the formation of spindle fibers for eukaryotic cell division.
Mitosis - is the process of cell division resulting into two daughter cells, with the
same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
 “the dance of the chromosomes”

Other structures:
o Microtubules, granules, vacuoles containing food, secretory
products and pigments.
o chloroplasts – present in plant cells containing chlorophyll
required for photosynthesis.

4. Cell Wall – a structure found on plant cells, algae, fungi, (eukaryotic cell wall)
 consists mainly of cellulose but may also contain pectin, lignin, chinin and some
mineral salts (usually found in algae)
 the cell walls of fungi contains a substance called chitin, (not found in cell walls of
other microorganisms.
 Provides rigidity and protection for the cell

 Flagella/ Cilia- found in some eukaryotic cells (spermatozoa, protozoa and algae.)
 are long thin structures, that enables the cell (Flagellated) to
“swim” through liquid environments.
 are organelles of locomotion.

View:
You Tube link Title
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=URUJD5NEXC8 Biology: Cell Structure I Nucleus Medical Media

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=apsSrkgLhC8 Eukaryotic Cell Structure

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t0msg7psXc0 Eukaryotic Cell Structure and Function

B. Prokaryotic Cell
 Are 10x smaller than eukaryotic cell.
 Are very simple cells.
 Reproduction is by binary fission – a simple division of one cell into two cells
following DNA replication.
Structures:
1. Nucleoid – a primitive nucleus; resembles a nucleolus (not surrounded by a nuclear
membrane; doesn’t have definite shape, has little or no protein material.
 contains single circular chromosomes.
 Chromosomes – DNA – serves as the control center for the cell,
carrying genetic information needed for producing enzymes
and proteins, capable of duplicating itself, of guiding cell
division and directing cellular activities.
2. Cytoplasm – semiliquid which surrounds the Nucleoloid, contained within the plasma
membrane.
 consists of water, enzymes, O2, waste products, essential nutrients, proteins,
carbohydrates and lipids – a complex materials required by cells for its metabolic
functions.
3. Cytoplasmic Particles –
3.1. ribosomes – (polyribosomes) occurs in clusters, smaller than Eucaryotic
ribosomes; function is the synthesis of proteins. (similar to eukaryotic cell)
3.2. cytoplasmic granules – consists of starch, lipids, sulfur, iron and other
stored substances.
- can be stained and identified microscopically (metachromatic granules.)
4. Cell membrane - encloses the cytoplasm. Consists of proteins and phospholipids
 controls substances which may enter or leave the cell.
 Mesosomes- inward folding of the cell membrane.
- area in the cell where cell respiration takes place.
- similar to mitochondria in animal cells.
- contain chlorophyll and other pigments that serve
to trap light energy for photosynthesis (in cyanobacteria and
photosynthetic bacteria).
5. Bacterial Cell wall- rigid exterior cell wall that defines the shape of bacterial cells; the
thickness and exact composition varies according to species.
 G (+) – have many layers (thicker)
 G (-) – have thinner layer but is covered with a complex layer of lipid
macromolecules, usually referred to as outer membrane.
6. Capsules – layer outside the cell wall; a thick layer of slimy gelatinous material produced
by the plasma membrane and secreted outside the cell wall, also called slime layer or
glycocalyx.
 made up of complex sugar or polysaccharides which may combine with lipids and
proteins depending on the specie of the microorganism.

Functions:
 Enables the cell to glide, slide or move on the surface of a solid material, if it
is a thin slime.
 Enables bacterial species to attach to mucous
membranes and tooth surfaces so that they are not
flushed by body secretions.
 Its chemical composition is useful in identifying the different types of bacteria
within a specie.
Ex. Identification through staining – identifies specific strain
  Prevents from easy digestion by phagocytes (WBC), therefore can survive
longer in the body.
 Classification purposes - capsulated
- non - capsulated
7. Flagella – thread like protein appendages whose whip like motion
enables bacteria to move or be motile.
 arise from a basal body cell membrane and project outwardly through the cell
wall and capsule
 used for classification purposes – number and arrangement of flagella.
Four basic types of Flagellation on bacteria:
 Peritrichous bacteria – flagella is all over the surface.

 Lophotrichous- tuft of flagella in a single location or at one end.

 Amphitrichous – those having flagella at both ends

 Monotrichous – those either a single polar flagellum

8. Pili or fimbriae – are hair like structures most often observed in gram negative bacteria.
 thinner than flagella, have rigid structure, and are not associated
with motility.
 arise from cytoplasm and extend through plasma membrane, cell wall and
capsule.
Functions:
 enables the bacteria to attach to other bacteria or other membrane surfaces
such as intestinal lining and RBC.
 Provide a site for attachment of bacterial or viruses
 Enable bacterial possessing a sex pilus to transfer genetic material to another
bacterial cell through the process of conjugation. Ex. Pili of E. coli.

Conjugation is the process by which two bacteria attach to each other by a pilus
bridge and some genetic material is transferred from donor cell to the recipient.
9. Spores or endospores
 are produced by bacteria during sporulation.
 a means of survival when their moisture or nutrient supply is low. Ex. When a
dried spore lands on a moist nutrient- rich surface, germinates and forms a new
vegetative bacterial cell.
Difference between Eucaryotic and Prokaryotic cell:

Eucaryotic Cell Prokaryotic cell

Animal cells do not have cell
wall.
Plant cells have simple cell
wall usually consisting of
cellulose.
Are filled with membrane
bound organelles such as
endoplasmic reticulum
Ribosomes are larger and more
dense (involved in protein
synthesis)
Have complex cell wall
consisting of proteins, lipids
and polysaccharides.
Have only few cytoplasmic
membranes (Mesosomes,
and photosynthetic membranes,)
which arise from plasma
membranes.
No Nucleus

View:
You Tube Link Title
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LYgpHNiyLKM Prokaryotic Cells - Introduction and
Structure - Post 16 Biology (A Level,
Pre-U, IB, AP Bio)

C. Microbial Classification:

Since Aristotle’s time, naturalists have attempted to classify and name plants, animals
and microorganisms in a meaningful was based on their appearance and behavior.

Taxonomy – the science of biologic classification, based on

binomial system.
Carolus Linnaeus – Swedish scientist, in 18th century developed
the binomial system of classification, Father of ModernTaxonomy
Binomial System – each organism is given two names.
The first name is the genus, (genera; plural) and
the second is the specific epithet., together are referred to as the species.

Two Classifications Generally Used:

(Jawets, et all, Medical Microbiology)

1. Descriptive Keys or Artificial Classification:

 Classified because they share some easily recognizable
properties.
 Don’t necessarily reflect natural evolutionary relationships
 between organisms.
 May be based on morphology:
 shapes
 staining reactions
 cultural characteristics
 physiologic behaviors
2. Phylogenic Classification
 Organisms are grouped because they are related or share
common ancestor.
 Species have arisen through divergent evolution from all
common ancestor is grouped together in a single genus;
genera with a common origin are grouped in a single family.

2.1. Whittaker Classification-

All living (and extinct) organisms are placed in
five kingdoms.
a. Animalia – animals
b. Plantae – Plants
c. Fungi – Fungi
d. Protista – Algae and protozoa
e. Procaryotae / Monera – cyanobacteria and bacteria
Viruses are not included because they are not rue living cells.
 Each kingdom consists of divisions or phyla, divided
into classes, orders, families, genera and species.
Because written reference is often made to genera and species, biologists throughout the
world have adopted a standard method of expressing these names.

The scientific name of living organism is usually made up of two words that are in Latin
or Greek form. (Taxonomy)
 The first name begins with capital letter and denotes the Genus.
 The second name begins with a small letter and denotes the Species. In writing,
the entire name should be either italicized or underlined. Frequently genus is
designated by a single letter abbreviation.
Ex. Escherichia coli - E. coli

The proper name may be that of the scientific investigator or that of the related geographic
area. Biologic characteristics indicated include color, location in nature, disease produced and
presence of certain enzymes.
Ex. 1. Staphylococcus aureus
Genus: Staphylococcus
Greek: staphyle – bunch of grapes
Kokkus – berry
Specie: aureus
Latin: aureus – golden
 It indicates that the bacteria grow in typical cluster and
produce golden pigments
 2. Brucella melitensis
Brucella – David Bruce – discovered the
microorganism
melitensis – pertains to the island of Malta – the
area where it was first recognized.

2.2 Bergey’s Classification –

Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology renamed as Bergey’s Manual
of Systematic Bacteriology.
- standard reference for bacterial classification

View
You Tube Link Title
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vqeZBEJyXx4 Microbiology: Taxonomy

Reference:

Burton, Gwendolyn and Paul Engelkirk. Microbiology for Health Sciences. 7 th edition

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=URUJD5NEXC8004.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=apsSrkgLhC8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LYgpHNiyLKM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vqeZBEJyXx4

HBGUMBA2021