Cells: The Living Units  Regardless of these differences, all cells

have the same basic parts and some

Four concepts collectively known as the cell
common functions. For this reason, it is
theory:
possible to speak of a generalized, or
● A cell is the basic structural and functional unit composite, cell
of living organisms. When you define cell
 A human cell has three main parts:
properties, you define the properties of life.
● The plasma membrane: the outer
● The activity of an organism depends on both
boundary of the cell which acts as a selectively
the individual and the combined activities of its
permeable barrier.
cells.
● The cytoplasm (si′to-plazm): the
● According to the principle of complementarity
intracellular fluid packed with organelles, small
of structure and function, the biochemical
activities of cells are dictated by their shapes or structures that perform specific cell
forms, and by the relative number of the functions.
subcellular structures they contain.
● The nucleus (nu′kle-us): an organelle
● Cells can only arise from other cells. (All cells that controls cellular activities. Typically the
come from the division of pre existing cell) nucleus lies near the cell’s center.

 Organelles: these are permanent

structures with characteristic
Cell diversity
morphology that are highly specialized
in specific cellular activity.

 Inclusions: they are the secretions and

storage products of cells.

Plasma Membrane

- is a thin outer membrane, which

maintains the integrity of the cell.

- It keeps the cell and its contents

separate and distinct from the
surrounding.

- It is a double layered measuring about

4.5 nm and made of phospholipids,
cholesterol, glycolipid, & carbohydrate
(oligosaccharides).

- The bi-layer is self-sealing.

- If a needle is injected and pulled out, it

automatically seals.

Functions: -

1. Separate the cytoplasm inside a cell

from extra cellular fluid.

2. Separate cell from one another

 3. Provide an abundant surface on
which chemical reaction can occur.
4. Regulate the passage of materials in
to and out of cells. It also let some
things in and keeps others out. The
quality selective permeability.
Movement across-cell membrane place in two
ways.
Passive movements = uses energy
Active Movements = consumes
energy in the form of ATP
Passive movement: includes
a. Simple diffusion, the random movements of
molecules from area of high concentration to the
area of low concentration. Example air in alveoli
of lung
b. Facilitated diffusion, larger molecules, which
are not soluble in lipid need protein channel to
pass through the plasma membrane. No direct
energy needed. Example: - Amino acid passes
through the cell membrane.
c. Osmosis, a special type of diffusion referring
to the passage of water through a selectively
permeable membrane from an area of highwater
concentration to lower water concentration.
d. Filtration, small molecules pass through
selectively permeable membrane in response to
force of pressure.
Example: - filtration in the kidney in the process
of urine formation.
Active movements across membranes
Substances move through a selectively
permeable membrane from areas of low
concentration on side of a membrane to an area
of higher concentration on the other side. This is
against concentration gradient. Therefore, it
requires energy.
a) Active Transport: till equilibrium substances
could more by passive movement. But if
equilibrium reached and still more molecules are
needed, they must be pumped through the
membrane against concentration gradient.
This process requires the use of ATP. One
example of such processes is Sodium–
Potassium pump and calcium pump. In this
process all follows similar process. These are
molecules bind to carrier protein, molecule-
carrier complex pass through the membrane,
assisted by an enzyme & ATP and carrier
protein returns to its original shape & repeat the
process.
b) Endocytosis, pocketing in by plasma
membrane. It includes:
 Pinocytoss – cell drinking
 Receptor – mediated
Endocytosis- Endocytosis with
the help of receptor.
 Phagocytosis- cell eating.
c) Exocytosis, opposite to Endocytosis, to
remove out undigested particles.
Cytoplasm
 Cytoplasm is a matrix or ground
substance in which various cellular
components are found. It is thick semi
transparent, elastic fluid containing
suspended particles and a series of
minute tubules and filaments that form
cytoskeleton. Water constitutes 75-90%
of the cytoplasm. It also contains solid
components, proteins, carbohydrates,
lipids and inorganic substances. The
inorganic components exist as solutions
because they are soluble in water. The
majority of organic substances however
are found as colloids. Colloids are
particles that remain suspended in the
surrounding medium.
Organelles
Organelles are specialized portion of the cell
with a characteristic shape that assume specific
role in growth, maintenance, repair and control.
 a) Nucleus, Oval in shape and is the
largest structure in the cell. Contain the
hereditary factor in the cell. Hence it
controls cell activity & structure. Most
cell contain single nucleus but some like
matured Red Blood cell do not contain.
However Muscle cell contain several
nucleuses. The nucleus separated from
other cell structure by double membrane
called nuclear membrane. Pores over
the nuclear membrane allow the nucleus
to communicate with the cytoplasm.
Nucleus (cont.), In the nucleus a jelly like fluid
that fill the nucleus is karylymph (neucleoplasm),
which contain the genetic material called
chromosome. Nucleus also contain dark,
somewhat spherical, non-membrane bound
mass called nucleolus. It contains DNA, RNA
and protein, which assist in the construction of
ribosome.
Ribosome, tiny granules, composed of
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA). They are site of protein
synthesis
Endoplasmic reticulum is a double membrane
channel. It is continuous with the nuclear
membrane. It involved in intracellular exchange
of material with the cytoplasm. Various products
are transported from one portion of the cell to
another via the endoplasmic reticulum. So it is
considered as intracellular transportation. It is
also storage for synthesized molecules.
Together with the Golgi complex it serves as
synthesis & packaging center.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is divided in to two.
These are, granular E.R. Containing granule and
involving in synthesis of protein and agranular
E.R. that synthesize lipid & involves in
detoxification.
Golgi Complex, near to the nucleus. It consist
4-8 membranous sacs. It process, sort, pack &
deliver protein to various parts of the cell.
Mitochondria, a small, spherical, rod shaped or
filamentous structure. It generates energy. Each
mitochondria posses two membrane, one is
smooth (upper) membrane and the other is
arranged with series of folds called cristae. The
central cavity of a mitochondrion enclosed by the
inner membrane is the matrix.
Lysosomes- appear as membrane enclosed
spheres. They are formed from Golgi complexes
& have single membrane. They contain powerful
digestive (hydrolytic enzyme capable of breaking
down many kinds of molecules. The lysosomal
enzyme believed to be synthesized in the
granular endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
complex.
The cyto-skeleton- the cytoplasm has a
complex internal structure consisting of a series
of exceedingly small microfilaments, microtubule
& intermediate filaments together referred to as
the cyto-skeleton.
Centrosome- a dense area of cytoplasm
generally spherical and located near the nucleus
it contain centrioles. It also contains DNA that
controls their replication. Centrosomes are made
of microtubules, which seam drinking straws.
They are Involved in the movement of
chromosome during cell division.
Cilia/flagella- thread like appendages, which
are made of microtubules. When they are
beating forms rhythmic movement. They are
found in female reproductive organ and upper
respiratory tube.
Cell Inclusions- Large and diverse group of
chemicals, which are produced bycells, are cell
inclusions. It is mainly organic and includes
melanin, glycogen & Lipids.
Cells Out of Control = CANCER CELLS
Normal human body cells usually divide at a
controlled rate required to replace the dying
ones and for growth. Cancer cells are different.
They lack the controlling mechanism.
Cancer occurs when cells grows and divide at
abnormal rate & then spread beyond the original
site. Some of the risk factors for cancer
occurrence are radiation, chemicals, extreme
pressure and hormonal therapy.
The cell life cycle has two stages: interphase
and cell division.
TISSUES
Interphase
Tissues and Histology
1. Interphase, the period between
1. Tissues are collections of similar cells and the
cell divisions, is the time of DNA replication.
extracellular substances surrounding them.
2. During replication, DNA
2. The four primary tissue types are epithelial,
unwinds, and each strand produces a new DNA
connective, muscle, and nervous tissues.
molecule.
3. Histology is the microscopic study of tissues.
Cell Division
• Embryonic Tissue
1. Cell division includes nuclear
division and cytoplasmic division. All four of the primary tissue types are
derived from each of the three
2. Mitosis is the replication of the
cell’s nucleus, and cytokinesis is division of the germ layers (mesoderm, ectoderm, and
cell’s cytoplasm. endoderm).
3. Mitosis is a continuous process
divided into four phases. Epithelial Tissue

1. Epithelium consists of cells with little

■ Prophase. Chromatin
condenses to become visible as chromosomes.
Each chromosome consists
of two chromatids joined at the centromere.
Centrioles move to opposite
poles of the cell, and astral fibers and spindle
fibers form. Nucleoli disappear, and the nuclear
envelope degenerates.
■ Metaphase.
Chromosomes align at the center of the cell.
■ Anaphase. The
chromatids of each chromosome separate at the
centromere. Each chromatid is then
called a chromosome. The
chromosomes migrate to opposite poles.
■ Telophase.
Chromosomes unravel to become chromatin.
The nuclear envelope and nucleoli reappear.
4. Cytokinesis begins with the formation
of the cleavage furrow during anaphase. It is
complete when the plasma membrane comes
together at the equator, producing two new
daughter cells.
extracellular matrix. It covers surfaces, usually
has a basement membrane, and does not have
blood vessels.
2. The basement membrane is secreted by the
epithelial cells and attaches the epithelium to the
underlying tissues.
Functions of Epithelial Tissues
• Epithelial tissues protect underlying
structures, act as barriers, permit some
substances to pass through epithelial
layers, secrete substances, and absorb
substances.
• Classification of Epithelial Tissues
1. Simple epithelium has a single layer of cells,
stratified epithelium has two or more layers, and
pseudostratified epithelium has a single layer
that appears stratified.
2. Cells can be squamous (flat), cuboidal, or
columnar.
3. Stratified squamous epithelium can be
nonkeratinized or keratinized.
4. Transitional epithelium is stratified, with cells
that can change shape from cuboidal to
flattened.
Glands
1. Glands are organs that secrete. Exocrine
glands secrete through ducts, and Endocrine
glands release hormones that are absorbed
directly into the blood.
2. Glands are classified as unicellular or
multicellular. Goblet cells are unicellular glands.
Multicellular exocrine glands have ducts, which
are simple or compound. The ducts can be
tubular or end in small sacs (acini or alveoli).
Tubular glands can be straight or coiled.
3. Glands are classified according to their mode
of secretion. Merocrine glands (pancreas)
secrete substances as they are produced,
Apocrine glands (mammary glands)
accumulate secretions that are released when a
portion of the cell pinches off, and Holocrine
glands (sebaceous glands) accumulate
secretions that are released when the cell
ruptures and dies.
Connective Tissue
Connective tissue is distinguished by its
extracellular matrix.
Functions of Connective Tissue
- Connective tissues enclose and
separate organs and tissues; connect
tissues to one another; help support and
move body parts; store compounds;
cushion and insulate the body; transport
substances; and protect against toxins
and injury.
Cells of Connective Tissue
1. The extracellular matrix results from the
activity of specialized connective tissue cells; in
general, blast cells form the matrix, cyte cells
maintain it, and clast cells break it down.
Fibroblasts form protein fibers of many
connective tissues, osteoblasts form bone, and
chondroblasts form cartilage.
2. Connective tissue commonly contains adipose
cells, mast cells, white blood cells,
macrophages, and mesenchymal cells (stem
cells).
Extracellular Matrix
1. The major components of the extracellular
matrix of connective tissue are protein fibers,
ground substance, and fluid.
2. Protein fibers of the matrix have the following
characteristics:
■ Tropocollagens are linked together to form
collagen fibrils, which are joined to form collagen
fibers. The collagen fibers resemble ropes.
They are strong and flexible but resist stretching.
■ Reticular fibers are fine collagen fibers that
form a branching network that supports other
cells and tissues.
■ Elastic fibers have a structure similar to
that of a spring. After being stretched, they tend
to return to their original shape.
3. Ground substance has the following major
components:
■ Hyaluronic acid makes fluids slippery.
■ Proteoglycan aggregates trap water,
which gives tissues the capacity to return to their
original shape when compressed
ordeformed.
■ Adhesive molecules hold proteoglycans
together and to plasma membranes.
Connective Tissue Classifications
Connective tissue is classified according to
the type and proportions of cells and
extracellular matrix fibers, ground substance,
and fluid.
1. Embryonic connective tissue is called
mesenchyme, consists of irregularly shaped
cells and abundant matrix, and gives rise to
adultconnective tissue.
2. Adult connective tissue consists of
connective tissue proper, supporting
connective tissue, and fluid connective
tissue.
Connective Tissue Proper
1. Loose connective tissue
 ■ Areolar connective tissue has many
different cell types and a random
arrangement of protein fibers with space
between the fibers.
• This tissue fills spaces around the
organs and attaches the skin to
underlying tissues.
■ Adipose tissue has adipocytes filled with lipid
and very little extracellular matrix (a few reticular
fibers). It functions in energy storage, insulation,
and protection. Adipose tissue can be yellow or
brown.
Brown adipose is specialized for generating
heat.
■ Reticular tissue is a network of reticular fibers;
it forms the framework of lymphatic tissue, bone
marrow, and the liver.
2. Dense connective tissue
■ Dense regular connective tissue is composed
of fibers arranged in one direction, which
provides strength in a direction parallel to the
fiber orientation. Two types of dense regular
connective tissue
exist: collagenous (tendons and most ligaments)
and elastic (ligaments of vertebrae).
■ Dense irregular connective tissue has fibers
organized in many directions, which produces
strength in different directions.
Two types of dense irregular connective tissue
exist: collagenous (capsules of organs and
dermis of skin) and elastic (large arteries).
Supporting Connective Tissue
1. Cartilage
■ Cartilage has a relatively rigid matrix
composed of protein fibers and proteoglycan
aggregates. The major cell type is the
chondrocyte, which is located within lacunae.
■ Hyaline cartilage has evenly dispersed
collagen fibers that provide rigidity with some
flexibility. Examples include the costal cartilage,
the covering over the ends of bones in joints, the
growing portion of long bones, and the
embryonic skeleton.
■ Fibrocartilage has collagen fibers arranged in
thick bundles; it can withstand great pressure,
and it is found between vertebrae, in the jaw,
and in the knee.
■ Elastic cartilage is similar to hyaline cartilage,
but it contains elastin. It is more flexible than
hyaline cartilage and is found in the external ear.
2. Bone
■ Bone cells, or osteocytes, are located in
lacunae surrounded by a mineralized matrix
(hydroxyapatite) that makes bone very hard.
Spongy bone has spaces between bony
trabeculae; compact bone is more solid.
Fluid Connective Tissue
1. Blood - suspended in a fluid matrix.
2. Hemopoietic tissue - forms blood cells
Muscle Tissue
1. Muscle tissue has the ability to contract.
2. Skeletal (striated voluntary) muscle
attaches to bone and is responsible for body
movement. Skeletal muscle cells are long and
cylindrically shaped with many peripherally
located nuclei.
3. Cardiac (striated involuntary) muscle cells
are cylindrical, branching cells with a single,
central nucleus. Cardiac muscle is found in the
heart and is responsible for pumping blood
through the circulatory system.
4. Smooth (nonstriated involuntary) muscle
forms the walls of hollow organs, the iris of the
eye, and other structures. Its cells are
spindleshaped with a single, central nucleus.
Nervous Tissue

1. Nervous tissue is able to conduct electrical

impulses and is composed of neurons
(conductive cells) and neuroglia (support
cells).

2. Neurons have cell processes called

dendrites and axons. Dendrites receive electrical
impulses, and axons conduct them. Neurons can
be multipolar (several dendrites and an axon),
bipolar (one dendrite and one axon), or pseudo-
unipolar (one axon).

Tissue Membranes

1. Mucous membranes consist of epithelial cells,

their basement membrane, the lamina propria,
and sometimes smooth muscle cells; they line
cavities that open to the outside and often
contain mucous glands, which secrete mucus.

2. Serous membranes line cavities that do not

open to the exterior and do not contain glands
but do secrete serous fluid.

3. Synovial membranes are formed by

connective tissue, line joint cavities, and secrete
a lubricating fluid.