Endoplasmic Reticulum - a network of membranous tubules within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell.

The endoplasmic reticulums function is the folding of protein molecules in sacs called cisternae and the transport of synthesized
proteins in vesicles to the Golgi apparatus.

The endoplasmic reticulum looks like folded paper, made up of membranes that are folded into one another to provide more
surface area for cell use.Membranes that make up the rough endoplasmic reticulum are made up of lipids, like the membrane
that wraps around the whole cell.The surface of rough endoplasmic reticulum is dotted with other organelles known as
ribosomes.

Golgi Apparatus - a complex of vesicles and folded membranes within the cytoplasm of most eukaryotic cells.

The golgi apparatus function sorts and packages proteins for secretion it also involves the transport of lipids around the cell,
and the creation of lysosomes.

The golgi apparatus looks like a maze, but the structure is made up of stacks of flattened membranous sacs, or cisternae.

Lysosome - an organelle in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells containing degradative enzymes enclosed in a membrane.

The lysosome function digests excess or worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses or bacteria

The lysosome has a membrane bounded sac that buds from the golgi apparatus and contains many enzymes.

Mitochondria - the biochemical processes of respiration and energy production. “power house”

Mitochondria’s function is to convert energy into forms that are usable by the cell.

Mitochondria looks like a rod-shaped structure that is enclosed within two membranes - the outer membrane and the inner
membrane. The membranes are made up of phospholipids and proteins.
 Organelles Structure Function
Cell Membrane / Plasma It is the outermost structure of the cell Provides shape and protects the inner
Membrane that decides its contour and it is a organelle of the cell, it regulates the
mosaic composed of large molecules of passage of nutrients, waste products, and
proteins and phospholipids (certain secretions into and out of the cell. Because
types of fats). The cell membrane is like the cell membrane has the property of
a “skin” around the cell, separating the selective permeability, only certain
contents of the cell from the outside substances may enter and leave the cell.
world. The modification of the cell membrane
results in formation of specialized
structures like axon of nerves, microvilli of
intestinal epithelium and tail of spermatids.
Nucleus (pl., nuclei) The nucleus is the center of the cell and Controls the functions or activities of the
 Nucleolus surrounded by double layer membrane entire cell and can be thought of as the
 Chromatin of about 250-400 Å thick. It has three “command center” of the cell. It helps in
components: nucleoplasm, the cell division and controls the hereditary
chromosomes, and a nuclear characters. It is also in the nucleolus that
membrane. rRNA molecules are manufactured.
 Nucleolus is a dark (electron
dense) area can be seen in the
nucleus when observed using a
transmission electron
microscope.
 Chromatin is the readily
stainable substance of a cell
nucleus consisting if DNA, RNA,
and various proteins.
Cytoplasm It is a semifluid, gelatinous, nutrient The cytoplasm is where most of the cell’s
matrix. Within the cytoplasm are found metabolic reactions occur.
insoluble storage granules and various
cytoplasmic organelles, including
endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes,
Golgi complexes, mitochondria,
centrioles, microtubules, lysosomes,
and other membrane-bound vacuoles.
Cytoplasm accounts for 70-75% weight
of the cytosol.
Endoplasmic Reticulum The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a Forms the skeletal framework of the cell,
 Smooth highly convoluted system of involved in the detoxification, production
Endoplasmic membranes that are interconnected of Lipids and proteins. They are the
Reticulum and arranged to form a transport transport system of the cell, involved in
 Rough Endoplasmic network of tubules and flattened sacs transporting materials throughout the cell.
Reticulum within the cytoplasm. The Endoplasmic
Reticulum is a network of membranous
canals filled with fluid.
  The Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum are composed of
cisternae, tubules, and vesicles,
which are found throughout the
cell. A rough, granular
appearance when observed by
transmission electron
microscopy caused by the many
ribosomes attached to the
outer surface of the
membranes.
 The Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum which ribosomes are
not attached. – They are the
storage organelle, associated
with the production of lipids,
steroids, and also responsible
for detoxifying the cell.
Ribosomes Ribosomes are nonmembrane-bound The primary function of the ribosomes
and important cytoplasmic organelles includes protein synthesis in all living cells
found in close association with the that ensure the survival of the cell.
endoplasmic reticulum. They are found
in the form of tiny particles in a large
number of cells and are mainly
composed of 2/3rd of RNA and 1/3rd of
protein. Ribosomes are either
encompassed within the endoplasmic
reticulum or are freely traced in the
cell’s cytoplasm. Ribosomal RNA and
Ribosomal proteins are the two
components that together constitute
ribosomes.
Golgi Complex/ Golgi It is a membrane-bound, sac-like This cell organelle is primarily responsible
Apparatus organelles, which is mainly composed of for transporting, modifying, and packaging
a series of flattened, stacked pouches proteins and lipid to targeted destinations.
called cisternae. Golgi Apparatus is It completes the transformation of newly
found within the cytoplasm of a cell and synthesized proteins into mature,
are present in both plant and animal functional ones and packages them into
cells. small, membrane-enclosed vesicles for
storage within the cell or export outside
the cell (exocytosis or secretion).
Lysosomes Lysosomes are small (about 1 m Helps in the digestion and removes wastes
diameter) vesicles that originate at the and digests dead and damaged cells.
Golgi complex. They contain lysozyme Therefore, it is also called as the “suicidal
and other digestive enzymes that break bags”.
down foreign material taken into the
cell by phagocytosis (the engulfing of
 large particles by amebas and certain
types of white blood cells called
phagocytes).
Peroxisomes Peroxisomes are membrane-bound
vesicles that contain the enzyme
catalase, which catalyzes (speeds up)
the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide
into water and oxygen. They are found
in most eucaryotic cells, but are
especially prominent in mammalian
liver cells.
Mitochondria An oval-shaped, membrane-bound
organelle, and the second largest
structures in the cell also called as the,”
“Power Houses,” or “Energy Factories”
of the eucaryotic cell. The number of
mitochondria in a cell varies greatly
depending on the activities required of
that cell. They are about 0.5 to 1 µm in
diameter and up to 7 µm in length.
Mitochondria consist of outer and inner
membranes. The outer membrane is
composed of equal amount of protein
and lipids mainly phospholipids and
cholesterol. The inner membrane
consist of 75% protein and remainder is
lipid. Cardiolipin is the important
phospholipid of inner mitochondrial
membrane. The inner membrane is
convoluted to form number of
invaginations known as cristae
extending to matrix.
Cytoskeleton It is a system of fibers collectively
present throughout the cytoplasm. The
three types of cytoskeletal fibers are
microtubules, microfilaments (actin
filaments), and intermediate filaments.
Microtubules are slender, hollow
tubules composed of spherical protein
subunits called tubulins.
Vacuoles A membrane-bound, fluid-filled
organelle found within the cytoplasm.
The animal and plant cell have different
size and number of vacuoles. Compared
to the animals, plant cell have larger
vacuoles.
Involved in the metabolism of lipids and
catabolism of long-chain fatty acids.
Glycerophospholipids are also
synthesized in peroxisomes.
The number of mitochondria ranges from
1-100 per cell depending on type of cell
and its function. Exposure to cold increases
mitochondria by 20-30% in liver cells. The
main sites of cellular respiration and also
involved in storing energy in the form of
ATP molecules. During this process, energy
is released from glucose molecules and
other nutrients to drive other cellular
functions. Some reactions of
gluconeogenesis and urea cycle also occurs
in mitochondria. Mitochondria is capable
of synthesizing some of its proteins. And
also pay key role in programmed cell death
of several types of cells. During apoptosis,
mitochondrial membrane potential drops.
This leads to permeabilization of
mitochondrial membrane. The inter
mitochondrial membrane space is
home for several lethal proteins like pro-
death enzymes.
All three types serve to strengthen,
support, and stiffen the cell, and give the
cell its shape. Also, microtubules and
microfilaments are essential for
various activities, such as cell division,
contraction, motility and the movement of
chromosomes within the cell.
Provide shape and rigidity to the plant cell
and helps in digestion, excretion, and
storage of substances.
3. Write about cell cycle and cell death. Mention clinical importance of each one.

The cell cycle is important in a cell of an adult organism through its process of achieving cell
homeostasis. A cell can be seen as a steady-state device. The DNA is continuously read out in a specific
collection of mRNAs, which specify a specific set of proteins. They are often destroyed and replaced with
new ones as these proteins work, and the mechanism is so balanced that the cell does not expand,
shrink or alter its function. However, the all-important diverse facets of cell life are ignored by this static
view of the cell. When one cell divides or when two cells, including a sperm and an egg cell, fuse, a new
cell emerges and the cell cycle takes place. A cell-replication program that is encoded in the DNA and
executed by proteins is set off by any event. This program typically includes a period of cell development
during which proteins are made and DNA is replicated as a cell divides into two daughter cells, by cell
division. A strongly supervised determination by the body is whether a given cell can expand and
differentiate, meaning that an adult organism replaces worn out cells or creates more cells in response
to a new requirement. It is essential that during cell cycle, the synthesis of DNA, chromosomal
segregation and cytoplasm division takes place in proper order. So, controls or check points within the
cell cycle exist for all organisms. During cell cycle, oscillation of cell from mitosis to interphase is
controlled by many cellular proteins. Further check points exist at the G1/S and G2/M boundaries of cell
cycle.

A mass of cells, a tumor, is formed by unregulated cell growth and multiplication. The very significant
role of population regulation by regulating cell growth and multiplication is performed by programmed
cell death. Furthermore, cell death destroys unnecessary cells as well. For example, during
embryogenesis, the digits of our fingers and toes are sculpted by the death of cells in the intervening
spaces. If these cells remained alive, our hands and feet would become webbed. Thus, the timing and
location of cell death, as well as cell growth and division, must be precisely controlled to achieve cell
homeostasis.