Digestive system of human

• The digestive system of the human body comprises

a group of organs that work together in converting
food into energy and other basic nutrients to power
the body. The food we take in is digested and
utilized by our body, and the unused parts of the
food are defecated.
• It is the sum of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT; also
called alimentary canal) and accessory organs
(tongue, liver, pancreas, etc.). These two parts
together help in the digestion process.
 Alimentary canal/digestive tract
• It is a long and coiled tube of various diameter of
about 6-10m in length which starts from the mouth
and end to the anus. It is divided into following parts –
• Mouth
• Buccal cavity
• Pharynx
• Oesophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine – Duodenum, jejunum and ileum
• Large intestine – Caecum, Colon and Rectum
 Alimentary canal
• Mouth is a small opening which is bounded by immovable
upper jaw and movable lower jaw with fleshy lips. It the
anterior most part of the alimentary canal through which food
enters into the body.
• Buccal cavity – Just behind the mouth, there is a hollow cavity
called buccal cavity. Upper palate forms the roof and lower
palate forms the floor of the buccal cavity. Anterior part of the
upper palate is generally hard and bony having transverse
ridges called rugae which help to hold the food materials in the
buccal cavity during mastication. Posterior part of the upper
palate is generally soft and flexible. Posterior triangular and
hinder part of part of the upper palate hangs down called uvula
which help to close internal nostrils during swallowing of food
materials.
• On the basis of structure, attachment and replacement
teeth of human are heterodont(dissimilar in structure and
function), thecodont(embedded in the jaw sockets) and
diphyodont(two sets of teeth, first sets of teeth which are
developed during childhood are called milk or deciduous
teeth which are replaced by the permanent teeth during
adulthood). On the basis of structure and functions, teeth
of human are –
• Incisor (I) – sharp and blade like which are used for cutting
the food materials.
• Canine (C) – these are well developed and dagger shaped in
carnivorous for tearing the flesh but absent in herbivorous
and poorly developed in human.
• Pre –molar (PM) and molar (M) – these are flat teeth which
are used for grinding or mastication of food materials.
• Human dental formula –
• In adult - (I -2/2, C -1/1, PM -2/2, M -3/3)X 2 =32
• In child – (I -2/2, C -1/1, PM -0/0, M -2/2)X2 = 20
• Tongue is a large, muscular and highly mobile organ
which occupies most of the surface of the buccal
cavity. Tongue attached which the floor of the buccal
cavity by thin membrane called frenulum. Tongue
consists of large numbers of raised and depressed
structures called papillae (vallate papillae, fungiform
papillae, filliform papillae etc.) having taste buds to
detects different tastes. Tips of the tongue detects
salts and sweet, sides detect sour taste and
posterior part of the tongue detects bitter taste.
 Alimentary canal
Pharynx starts just behind the soft palate of the buccal
cavity. It is divided into three regions i.e.nasopharynx,
oropharynx, and laryngopharynx. Anterior part of the
pharynx just behind the soft palate is called
nasopharynx which receives two pairs of opening i.e. a
pair of openings from the internal nostrils and a pair of
openings through the eustachian tubes. These tubes
connect middle with the pharynx and help to equalize
air pressure on either side of the tympanic membrane.
Oropharynx forms a common passage of both food
and air. Laryngopharynx communicates with the larynx
through the glottis and oesophagus through the gullet.
 Alimentary canal
Oesophagus – it is a short, narrow and muscular tube about 25
cm in length which passes through the neck and ends to the
stomach. Posterior part of the oesophagus slightly curves
upwards which prevents from regurgitation of the food
materials. Opening of oesophagus to the stomach is guarded
by the oesophageal sphincter.
• Stomach – it is a short, wide and J –shaped sac like structure
which is located on the left side of the abdominal cavity just
below the liver. It is about 30 cm in length and 15cm in width.
It is divided into cardiac, fundus, body and pylorus parts.
Uppermost part towards the oesophagus is called cardiac part
which opens to the oespohagus through the cardiac sphincter.
Fundus is dome shaped part of the stomach lying above the
cardiac orifice. Body is the middle part of the stomach.
 Alimentary canal
Posterior part of the stomach is called pyloric part which opens to
the duodenum through the pyloric sphincter. Mucosal lining of the
stomach consists of numerous longitudinal folds called gastric
rugae having gastric glands to produce gastric juice for digestion of
food materials.
Small intestine – it is a long, narrow and coiled tubular structure of
about 6.5m in length which starts from the stomach and ends to
the caecum. It is attached to dorsal wall of the abdominal cavity
with the help of thin and transparent membrane called
mesenteries/omantum. It is divided into duodenum, jejunum and
ileum.
Duodenum – anterior C –shaped, short and narrow of about 25 cm
length part of the small intestine towards the stomach is called
duodenum which receives bile juice and pancreatic juice through a
common hepatopancreatic duct.
 Alimentary canal
Mucosal lining of the duodenum consists of villi having
intestinal glands to produce intestinal juice for digestion of
food materials.
Jejunum – it is the middle part of small intestine of about 2.5
m in length. It is characteristic part of the mammalian
alimentary canal having larger and thick wall villi which are
not used for digestion and absorption of food materials.
Ileum – it is posterior part of the small intestine of about
3.5m in length having smaller and thin – walled villi which
help for absorption of food materials. Ileum connects with
the caecum through a narrow illeocaecal junction.
 Alimentary canal
Large intestine – it is a wide tube of about 1.5m in length which
starts from the ileocaecal junction and ends to the anus.
Anterior blind sac of about 6cm towards the ileocaecal junction
is called caecum. Originating from the caecum there is a short
and cylinder like appendix of about 8-10cm in length. Appendix
is vestigial in human but functional in herbivorous. Just behind
the caecum there is a inverted U –shaped colon of about 1.2m
in length which is divide into ascending colon, transverse colon,
descending colon and sigmoid colon which ends to the rectum.
The wall of colon has many sacculations called haustria. Large
intestine helps for absorption of water and some vitamins.
Rectum is a short, wide sac like structure just behind the colon
of about 12 cm in length which helps to hold the faeces just
before defaecation. Rectum opens out to the anus through the
anal sphincters.
 Digestive glands
• Those glands which are closely associated with the
alimentary canal, both structurally and functionally
are known as associated digestive glands. They
include –
• Salivary glands
• Gastric glands
• Liver
• Pancreas
• Intestinal glands
 Salivary glands
• There are three pairs of salivary glands located in the
mouth cavity I. e. parotid glands, sub – mandibular glands
and sub – lingual glands. These glands help to produce
saliva.
1. Parotid glands – these are the largest salivary glands
located at the base of the ear which opens to the buccal
cavity through the Stenson’s ducts.
2. Sub –mandibular glands – they are located in the lower
jaw near the jaw angle which open to the buccal cavity
through the Wharton’s ducts.
3. Sub –lingual glands – these are the smallest salivary
glands located at the base of the tongue and open in the
buccal cavity through the ducts of Rivinus.
 Saliva
• Saliva is a clear, transparent, taste less and slightly acidic in
nature of about pH 6.2. It consists of about 98.5 -99% of
water and remaining percentage of minerals and enzyme
ptyalin. Normal healthy person can secretes about 1.5 lts of
saliva per day which depends upon the food materials.
Important functions of saliva are as follows :
• It helps to moisten the food materials.
• It help to clean the mouth and teeth.
• It consists of enzyme ptyalin which help to digest starch into
maltose.
• It helps to activate taste buds in the tongue.
• Enzyme lysozyme present in the saliva helps to kill the
bacteria and other micro –organisms.
 Gastric glands
• These are the branched and tubular glands which are located
on the inner lining of the stomach. These glands help to
produce gastric juice. Gastric glands forming cells are -
1. Parietal or oxyntic cells – secrete Hcl
2. Chief/peptic/Zymogens cells - secrete pepsinogen
3. Goblet cells – secrete mucin
Gastric juice is a thin, transparent and highly acidic fluid.
Normal healthy person can secrete about 2 -3 litres of
gastric juice daily which depends upon the food materials. It
is composed of water, Hcl, mucus, gastric enzymes (pepsins
and gastric lipase), inorganic compounds and minerals.
 Functions of Hcl
• It helps to make the food materials in acidic forms.
• It helps to kill the bacterial and other micro
organisms.
• It helps to digests hard parts of the food materials
like bones.
• It helps to activate the both cardiac and pyloric
sphincters.
• It helps to activate proenzymes into enzymes i.e.
Pepsinogen (inactive) Hcl Pepsin (Active)
 Liver
• Liver is the largest and reddish brown gland located anterior
side of the abdominal cavity just above the stomach. Human
liver is about 1.5 kg in weight. It is divided into four lobe i.e.
right lobe, left lobe, quadrate and caudate lobes. In
between right and quadrate lobe there is a greenish sac like
structure called gall bladder which helps to store bile juice.
• Histologically liver consists of large numbers of hepatic
lobules which are line by polyhedral hepatic cells. Each cell
is capable to produce bile juice. Bile juice is first drained into
bile canaliculi which later on collected by the ductules, ducts
and bile duct to the gall bladder. Lastly bile juice passes to
the duodenum through the common bile duct and
hepatopancreatic duct.
Liver
 Functions of Liver
• It helps to produce bile juice which neutralizes the food
materials and emulsifies fat materials.
• It helps to maintain blood glucose level either by the process
called gycogenesis, glycogenolysis or gluconeogenesis.
• It helps to remove amino group from the amino acids this
process is called deamination.
• It helps to detoxify highly toxic substances into less toxic forms
i.e. ammonia into urea, this process is called detoxification.
• Kuffer’s cells present in the liver have phagocytic functions.
• Liver helps to destroy old RBCs so called haemolytic organ but
during embryonic development, it helps to form RBCs so
called haemopoietic organs.
 Bile juice
• Bile juice is an highly alkaline fluid secreted by the
liver. It is golden – yellow in colour and bitter in
taste. Normal healthy person can secrete about 500
ml of bile juice daily which depends upon the food
materials. Bile is composed of water (97%), bile
salts(Sodium salt of glycoholic and taurocolic acids),
bile pigments (Bilirubin and biliverdin), Cholestrol,
inorganic salts, fatty acids, lecithin and alkaline
phosphatase.
Pancreas
 Pancreas
• It is a soft, lobulated, elongated or leaf like glands located in the C –
shaped lobe of the duodenum.
• Histologically it acts as both exocrine and endocrine functions so
called compound glands, mixed glands or heterocrine glands. In the
forms of endocrine glands, it consists of Islets of Langerhans cells
which produce hormones insulin, glucagon and somatostatin. Both
insulin and glucagon have antagonistic functions i.e. insulin decreases
the blood glucose level by changing glucose into glycogen in the liver
cells but glucagon increases blood glucose level by changing glycogen
into glucose in the liver cells but somatostatin controls the secretion
of both insulin and glucagon.
• In the forms of exocrine glands, it consists of pancreatic lobules or
acini which produce pancreatic juice containing various power ful
enzymes like trypsin, amylase, lipase etc. for digestion of proteins,
carbohydrates and lipids respectively.
 Intestinal glands
• There are two types of intestinal glands namely
Brunner’s glands and crypts of Lieberkuhn. The
Brunner’s glands are compound tubular glands found
only in the duodenum and secrete thick alkaline mucus
that protects the duodenal mucosa from the gastric
acid.
• The Crypts of Lieberkuhn are simple tubular glands
found throughout the small intestine and secrete
intestinal juice called succus entericus containing
different enzymes for digestion of food materials.
Normal healthy adult can produce about 500-800 ml of
intestinal juice daily.
 Physiology of digestion in human
• The process by which food is broken down into simple chemical
compounds that can be absorbed and used as nutrients or
eliminated by the body is called digestion. The processes
of digestion include six activities: ingestion, propulsion,
mechanical or physical digestion, chemical digestion,
absorption, and defecation. There are two types of digestion -
• physical/ mechanical digestion – simply changing larger pieces
of food materials into the smaller pieces which occurs in the
buccal cavity and stomach.
• Chemical digestion – simply changing complex forms of food
materials into the simpler forms by the actions of chemicals or
enzymes which occurs in the buccal cavity, stomach and small
intestine.
 Digestion in buccal cavity
• In the buccal cavity, there occurs both physical and
chemical digestion of food materials. There is
mastication of food materials to change the food into
smaller pieces. Saliva is thoroughly mixed with the
food materials. Enzyme ptyalin digests the starch into
maltose.
ptyalin
• Starch maltose
After partial digestion in the buccal cavity, food becomes
semi –solid forms called bolus which enters into the
stomach through the oesophagus for further digestion.
 Digestion in the stomach
• In the stomach, there occurs both physical and
chemical digestion of food materials. There is
mechanical churning of food materials due
movement of thick layer of circular muscles to
change the food into smaller and finer pieces.
• Gastric juice is thoroughly mixed with the food
materials. Hcl helps to make the food into acidic
forms, digests hard parts of the food materials and
also activates proenzymes into enzymes.
 Digestion in the Duodenum
• In the duodenum, there occurs chemical digestion
where food receives pancreatic juice from the
pancreas, bile juice from the liver and intestinal
juice from the intestinal glands.
• Bile juice helps to neutralize the food materials and
emulsifies the fat materials also.
• Different enzymes and their actions upon the food
materials by the pancreatic and intestinal juices are
as follows -
 Absorption
• Absorption is the process of up taking food materials through
the lining of the intestine. End products of carbohydrates i.e.
glucose and end products of proteins i. e. amino acids are
absorbed by the blood vessels through the lining of intestine
but end products fats i.e. fatty acids can’t be absorbed by the
blood vessels but they are absorbed by the lymph vessels.
During fat absorption, fatty acids, monoglycerides and bile
salts are combined together to form water soluble
components called micelles. These micelles after entering
through the lining of the villi but before entering into the
blood vessels are further broken down to form smaller
droplets called chylomicrons.
• There are two types of absorption i.e. active absorption and
passive absorption
 Active Transport Passive Transport

There is need of cellular energy. There is no need of cellular energy.

Food circulates from a region of lower concentration to a Food circulates from a region of higher concentration to
region of higher concentration a region of lower concentration

Required for the transportation of all the molecules such Required for the transportation of all soluble molecules,
as proteins, large cells, complex sugars, ions, etc. including oxygen, water, carbon dioxide, lipids, sex
hormones, etc.

It occurs until the digested food materials become It occurs until the concentration gradient on both sides
completed. becomes equal.

Active transport is a dynamic process. Passive Transport is a physical process.

Active transport is a rapid process. Passive transport is a comparatively slow process.

Active transportation is influenced by temperature. Passive transportation is not influenced by temperature.

This process reduces or halts as the oxygen content level This process is not affected by the level of oxygen
is reduced. content.

Different types of Active Transport are – Different types of Passive Transport are – Osmosis and
Exocytosis, endocytosis,  sodium-potassium pump diffusion
 Very short questions (1)
• Write the function of uvula.
• Write the dental formula of human.
• what do you mean by deciduous teeth?
• Write the functions of glottis.
• Differentiate between chyle and chyme.
• In which gland, Stenson’s duct is related to?
• What do you mean by deamination?
• Name the phagocytic cells of human liver.
• What is glycogenolysis?
• Name any two bile pigments.
• Which pigment gives colour to the stool?
• What are micells?
• What is chylomicrons?
• Give any two examples of proteolytic enzymes.
• Differentiate between proenzymes and enzymes.
• What is regurgitation?
• Name the endocrine part of the pancreas.
• Name the exocrine part of the pancreas.
 Short questions (3)
• Describe the structure human liver.
• Write the histology of human pancreas.
• Differentiate between active and passive
absorption.
• Describe the process of food digestion in human
intestine.
• Describe the process of proteins digestion in human
alimentary canal.
 Long questions (7.5 or 8 marks)
• Describe about the human digestive tract with well
labeled diagram.
• What is digestion? Describe the detail process of
food digestion in human alimentary canal.