CELLULAR BIOLOGY:
CELL STRUCTURE AND TAXONOMY
INTRODUCTION
 Two Major Categories of Microbes
 Acellular Microbes
 Infectious Particles
 Microbes that do not contain
cells
 E.g., viruses, and other
infectious agents
 Cellular Microbes
 Microorganisms
 It can be multicellular or
unicellular
 E.g., bacteria, algae, and
fungi.
 Metabolism refers to all chemical reactions
that occur within the cell.
 Through metabolism, cells can grow
and reproduce.
 Cell can mutate because of accidental
changes in genetic materials, the DNA.
 DNA is made up of genes of its
chromosomes.
 Mutant organism may adapt better to
its environment into a new species
of organism.
 Eukaryotic cells possess a true nucleus,
whereas prokaryotic cells do not.
 Prokaryotes are those organisms
that are made up of cells and lack of
nucleus or any membrane-encased
organelles e.g., Archaea.
 Eukaryotes are organisms made up
of cells that possess a membrane-
bound nucleus that holds genetic
material as well as membrane-
bound organelles e.g., plants,
animals, and fungi.
 Cytology, the study of the structure and
function of cells, has developed during the
past 75 years with the aid of the electron
microscope and sophisticated biochemical
research.
EUCARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE
 Eucaryotes (eu true; caryo refers to a nut or
nucleus) are so named because they have
a true nucleus, in that their DNA is enclosed
by a nuclear membrane.
CELL MEMBRANE
 The cell is enclosed and held intact by the
cell membrane, which is also referred to as
the plasma, cytoplasmic, or cellular
membrane.
 It is a mosaic composed of large Eucaryotic
chromosomes consisting of linear DNA
molecules and proteins (histones and
nonhistone proteins).
 Genes are located along the DNA
molecules.
 Each gene contains the genetic
information that enables the cell to
produce one or more gene products.
 Most gene products are proteins, but
some genes code to produce two
types of ribonucleic acid.
 ribosomal ribonucleic acid
(rRNA) and transfer
ribonucleic acid (tRNA)
molecules.
 The organism’s complete collection of
genes is referred to as that organism’s
genotype (or genome)
 refers to the genetic makeup of an
organism; in other words, it
describes an organism's complete
set of genes.
 The number and composition of
chromosomes and the number of genes on
each chromosome are characteristic of the
species of organism.
 Human diploid cells, for example,
have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs),
each consisting of thousands of
molecules of proteins and
phospholipids.
 Cell membrane is like a “skin” around the
cell, separating the contents of the cell from
the outside world.
 CELLULAR BIOLOGY:
CELL STRUCTURE AND TAXONOMY
 The cell membrane regulates the passage
of nutrients, waste products, and secretions
into and out of the cell.
 Cell membrane has the property of
selective permeability, only certain
substances may enter and leave the
cell.
NUCLEUS
 The nucleus (pl., nuclei) controls the
functions of the entire cell and can be
thought of as the “command center” of the
cell.
 The nucleus has three components:
 Nucleoplasm
 gelatinous matrix or base
material of the nucleus.
 Chromosomes
 embedded or suspended in
the nucleoplasm.
 Nuclear Membrane
 membrane that serves as a
“skin” around the nucleus.
 it contains holes (nuclear
pores) through which large
molecules can enter and exit
the nucleus.
 A dark (electron dense) area can be seen in
the nucleus. This area is called the
nucleolus; it is here that rRNA molecules
are manufactured.
CYTOPLASM
 Is a semifluid, gelatinous, nutrient matrix.
 Within the cytoplasm are found insoluble
storage granules and various cytoplasmic
organelles, including endoplasmic reticulum,
ribosomes, Golgi complexes, mitochondria,
centrioles, microtubules, lysosomes, and
other membrane-bound vacuoles.
 The cytoplasm is where most of the cell’s
metabolic reactions occur.
 The semifluid portion of the cytoplasm,
excluding the granules and organelles, is
sometimes referred to as the cytosol.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
 A highly convoluted system of membranes
that are interconnected and arranged to
form a transport network of tubules and
flattened sacs within the cytoplasm.
 has a rough, granular appearance when
observed by transmission electron
microscopy and is designated as rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER).
 This rough appearance is caused by the
many ribosomes attached to the outer
surface of the membranes.
 ER to which ribosomes are not attached is
called the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(SER).
RIBOSOMES
 Ribosomes are the sites of protein
synthesis.
 Eucaryotic ribosomes are 18 to 22 nm in
diameter.
 They consist mainly of rRNA and protein
and play an important part in the synthesis
(manufacture) of proteins.
 Clusters of ribosomes (called polyribosomes
or polysomes), held together by a molecule
of messenger RNA (mRNA), are sometimes
observed by electron microscopy.
 The subunits are then transported to the
cytoplasm where they remain separate until
such time as they join with an mRNA
molecule to initiate protein synthesis.
 Large subunit (60 Svedberg)
 Small subunit (40 Svedberg)
 Most of the proteins released from the ER
are not mature. They must undergo further
processing in an organelle known as a Golgi
complex before they are able to perform
their functions within or outside of the cell.
GOLGI COMPLEX
 also known as a Golgi apparatus or Golgi
body, connects or communicates with the
ER.
 Golgi complexes are sometimes referred to
as “packaging plants.”
 CELLULAR BIOLOGY:
CELL STRUCTURE AND TAXONOMY
 Completes the transformation of newly
synthesized proteins into mature, functional
ones and packages them into small,
membrane-enclosed vesicles for storage
within the cell or export outside the cell.
LYSOSOMES AND PEROXISOMES
 Lysosomes are small (about 1 m diameter)
vesicles that originate at the Golgi complex.
 Contain lysozyme and other digestive
enzymes that break down foreign material
taken into the cell by phagocytosis (the
engulfing of large particles by amebas and
certain types of white blood cells called
phagocytes)
 These enzymes also aid in breaking
down worn-out parts of the cell and
may destroy the entire cell by a
process called autolysis if the cell is
damaged or deteriorating.
 Peroxisomes are membrane-bound vesicles
in which hydrogen peroxide is both
generated and broken down.
 Contain the enzyme catalase, which
catalyzes (speeds up) the breakdown of
hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.
 Peroxisomes are found in most eukaryotic
cells but are especially prominent in
mammalian liver cells.
MITOCHONDRIA
 The energy necessary for cellular function is
provided by the formation of high-energy
phosphate molecules such as adenosine
triphosphate (ATP).
 ATP molecules are the major
energy-carrying or energy-storing
molecules within cells.
 Mitochondria can be considered “power
plants” or “energy factories.” because this is
where most of the ATP molecules are
formed by cellular respiration.
 The number of mitochondria in a cell varies
greatly depending on the activities required
of that cell.
PLASTIDS
 Plastids, another type of energy-producing
organelle, are membrane-bound structures
containing various photosynthetic pigments;
they are the sites of photosynthesis.
 Chloroplasts, one type of plastid, contain a
green, photosynthetic pigment called
chlorophyll.
 Plastids are the sites of photosynthesis.
 Photosynthesis is the process by
which light energy is used to convert
carbon dioxide and water into
carbohydrates and oxygen.
CYTOSKELETON
 The cytoskeleton is a structure that helps
cells maintain their shape and internal
organization.
 The three types of cytoskeletal fibers are
microtubules, microfilaments (actin
filaments), and intermediate filaments.
 Microtubules are slender, hollow tubules
composed of spherical protein subunits
called tubulins.
CELL WALL
 External structures that provide rigidity,
shape, and protection
 Eucaryotic cell walls, which are much
simpler in structure than procaryotic cell
walls, may contain cellulose, pectin, lignin,
chitin, and some mineral salts (usually
found in algae).
 Cellulose is also found in the cell walls of
plants
 Chitin, which is similar in structure to
cellulose, is also found in the exoskeletons
of beetles and crabs.
FLAGELLA AND CILIA
 microscopic hair-like structures involved in
the locomotion of a cell.
 CELLULAR BIOLOGY:
CELL STRUCTURE AND TAXONOMY
 Flagella are referred to as organelles of
locomotion (cell movement).
 Cilia (sing., cilium) are also organelles of
locomotion, but they tend to be shorter
(more hairlike), thinner, and more numerous
than flagella.
 Unlike flagella, cilia tend to beat with a
coordinated, rhythmic movement.
PROCARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE
 Procaryotic cells are about 10 times smaller
than eukaryotic cells.
 Structurally, procaryotes are very simple
cells when compared with eucaryotic cells,
and yet they can perform the necessary
processes of life.
CELL MEMBRANE
 The cell membrane consists of proteins and
phospholipids, which are discussed further.
 The membrane controls which substances
may enter or leave the cell. It is flexible and
so thin that it cannot be seen with a
compound light microscope.
 Many enzymes are attached to the cell
membrane, and various metabolic reactions
take place there.
 Some scientists believe that inward folding
of the cell membranes— called mesosomes
—is where cellular respiration takes place in
bacteria.
 Procaryotic cells do not have complex
internal membrane systems similar to the
ER and Golgi complex of eukaryotic cells.
Procaryotic cells do not contain any
membrane-bound organelles or vesicles.
CHROMOSOME
 The procaryotic chromosome usually
consists of a single, long, supercoiled,
circular DNA molecule, which serves as the
control center of the bacterial cell.
 Bacterial cells possess only one
chromosome, whereas eukaryotic cells may
possess many.
 Bacterial chromosomes contain between
450 and 8,000 genes, depending on the
species.
CYTOPLASM
 The semiliquid cytoplasm of prokaryotic
cells consists of water, enzymes, dissolved
oxygen (in some bacteria), waste products,
essential nutrients, proteins, carbohydrates,
and lipids—a complex mixture of all the
materials required by the cell for its
metabolic function.
CYTOPLASMIC PARTICLES
 Cytoplasmic granules occur in certain
species of bacteria.
 These may be stained by using a suitable
stain, and then identified microscopically.
 The granules may consist of starch, lipids,
sulfur, iron, or other stored substances.
BACTERIAL CELL WALL
 The main constituent of most bacterial cell
walls is a complex macromolecular polymer
known as peptidoglycan (murein),
consisting of many polysaccharide chains
linked together by small peptide (protein)
chains.
 The cell walls of certain bacteria, called
Gram-positive bacteria have a thick layer of
peptidoglycan combined with teichoic acid
and lipoteichoic acid molecules.
 The cell walls of Gram-negative bacteria
have a much thinner layer of peptidoglycan,
but this layer is covered with a complex
layer of lipid macromolecules, usually
referred to as the outer membrane.
 Some bacteria lose their ability to produce
cell walls, transforming into tiny variants of
the same species, referred to as L-form or
cell wall– deficient (CWD) bacteria.
GLYCOCALYX (SLIM LAYERS AND
CAPSULES)
 CELLULAR BIOLOGY:
CELL STRUCTURE AND TAXONOMY
 Glycocalyx is a slimy, gelatinous material
produced by the cell membrane and
secreted outside of the cell wall.
 Depending on the species, bacterial cells
may or may not be surrounded by
glycocalyx. The two types of glycocalyx are
slime layers and capsules.
 Slime layer is not highly organized
and is not firmly attached to the cell
wall. It easily detaches from the cell
wall and drifts away. Slime layers
enable certain bacteria to glide or
slide along solid surfaces.
 Capsule is highly organized and
firmly attached to the cell wall.
Capsules usually consist of
polysaccharides, which may be
combined with lipids and proteins,
depending on the bacterial species.
 Bacterial capsules serve an
antiphagocytic function,
meaning that they protect
encapsulated bacteria from
being phagocytized by white
blood cells.
FLAGELLA
 Flagella are threadlike, protein appendages
that enable bacteria to move.
 Flagellated bacteria are said to be motile,
whereas nonflagellated bacteria are usually
nonmotile.
 Bacteria possessing flagella over
their entire surface (perimeter) are
called peritrichous bacteria.
 Bacteria with a tuft of flagella at one
end are described as being
lophotrichous bacteria, whereas
those having one or more flagella at
each end are said to be
amphitrichous bacteria.
 Bacteria possessing a single polar
flagellum are described as
monotrichous bacteria.
 Bacterial flagella consist of three, four, or
more threads of protein (called flagellin)
twisted like a rope. Thus, the structures of
bacterial flagella and eucaryotic flagella are
quite different.
 Some spirochetes (spiral-shaped bacteria)
have two flagella-like fibrils called axial
filaments, one attached to each end of the
bacterium.
 These axial filaments extend toward
each other, wrap around the
organism between the layers of the
cell wall, and overlap in the
midsection of the cell.
PILI (FIMBRIAE)
 Pili (sing., pilus) or fimbriae (sing., fimbria)
are hairlike structures, most often observed
on Gram-negative bacteria.
 They are composed of polymerized
protein molecules called pilin.
 Pili are much thinner than flagella,
have a rigid structure, and are not
associated with motility.
 These tiny appendages arise from the
cytoplasm and extend through the plasma
membrane, cell wall, and capsule (if
present).
 There are two types of pili:
 one type merely enables bacteria to
adhere or attach to surfaces. e.g.,
tissues within the human body) are
usually quite numerous
 the other type (called a sex pilus)
enables the transfer of genetic
material from one bacterial. A
bacterial cell possessing a sex pilus
(called a donor cell)— and the cell
only possesses one sex pilus—can
attach to another bacterial cell
(called a recipient cell) by means of
the sex pilus
SPORES
 Bacterial spores are referred to as
endospores, and the process by which they
are formed is called sporulation.
 CELLULAR BIOLOGY:
CELL STRUCTURE AND TAXONOMY
 sporulation, a copy of the
chromosome and some of the
surrounding cytoplasm become
enclosed in several thick protein
coats.
 Spores are resistant to heat, cold, drying,
and most chemicals.
 Spores have been shown to survive for
many years in soil or dust, and some are
quite resistant to disinfectants and boiling.
 In bacteria, spore formation is related to the
survival of the bacterial cell, not to
reproduction.
 Where a spore is being produced within the
cell and whether it causes a swelling of the
cell serve as clues to the identity of the
organism.
SUMMARY OF STRUCTURAL
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
PROCARYOTIC AND EUCARYOTIC
CELLS
 Eucaryotic cells contain numerous
membranes and membrane-bound
structures. The only membrane
possessed by a procaryotic cell is its cell
membrane.
 Eucaryotic cells contain a true nucleus,
whereas prokaryotic cells do not.
 Eucaryotic cells are divided into plant
and animal types.
 Animal cells do not have a cell
wall, whereas plant cells have a
simple cell wall, usually
containing cellulose.
 Procaryotic cells have complex cell
walls consisting of proteins, lipids, and
polysaccharides. Eucaryotic cells
contain membranous structures (such
as ER and Golgi complexes) and many
membrane-bound organelles (such as
mitochondria and plastids).
 Procaryotic cells possess no
membranes other than the cell
membrane that encloses the cytoplasm.
Eucaryotic ribosomes (referred to as
80S ribosomes) are larger and denser
than those found in procaryotes (70S
ribosomes).
REPRODUCTION OF ORGANISMS AND
THEIR CELLS
• asexual versus sexual reproduction
• life cycles
• eucaryotic cell reproduction (mitosis and
meiosis)
PROCARYOTIC CELL REPRODUCTION
 Procaryotic cells reproduce by a process
known as binary fission in which one cell
(the parent cell) splits in half to become two
daughter cells. Before a procaryotic cell can
divide in half, its chromosome must be
duplicated (a process is known as DNA
replication so that each daughter cell will
possess the same genetic information as
the parent cell.
 The generation time varies from one
bacterial species to another and depends
on the growth conditions.
 The length of time it takes for one
bacterial cell to split into two cells is
referred to as the organism’s
generation time
TAXONOMY
 Taxonomy is the science of naming,
describing, and classifying organisms and
includes all plants, animals, and
microorganisms of the world.
 Classification is the arrangement of
organisms into taxonomic groups (known as
taxa [sing., taxon]) based on similarities or
relationships.
 CELLULAR BIOLOGY:
CELL STRUCTURE AND TAXONOMY
 Taxa include kingdoms or domains, microbiology laboratory to identify
divisions or phyla, classes, orders, families, pathogens.
genera, and species.
 Identification is the process of determining
whether an isolate belongs to one of the
established, named taxa or represents a
previously unidentified species.\
 An organism’s complete collection of genes
is referred to as the organism’s genotype or
genome. An organism’s complete collection
of physical characteristics is known as the
organism’s phenotype.

MICROBIAL CLASSIFICATION

 The taxonomic ranks used in the

classification of bacteria are (example in
parentheses):
•Kingdom (Prokaryotae)
•Division (Gracilicutes)
•Class (Betaproteobacteria)
•Order (Burkholderiales)
•Family (Burkholderiaceae)
•Genus (Burkholderia)
•Species (Burkholderia cepacia).

DETERMINING RELATEDNESS AMONG

ORGANISMS

 The most widely used technique for gauging

diversity or relatedness is called rRNA
sequencing.
 Ribosomes are made up of two
subunits: a small subunit and a large
subunit.
 To determine “relatedness,” researchers
compare the sequence of nucleotide base
pairs in the gene, rather than comparing the
actual SSUrRNA molecules.
 Not only can rRNA be used for taxonomic
purposes, it can also be used in the clinical