Introduction

Recall from Chapter 1 that there are two major categories of microbes: acellular microbes (also called
infectious particles) and cellular microbes (also called microorganisms). In this chapter, you will learn
about the structure of microorganisms. Because they are so small, very little detail concerning their
structure can be determined using the compound light microscope. Our knowledge of the ultrastucture
of microbes has been gained through the use of electron microscopes. Ultrastructure refers to the very
detailed views of cells that are beyond the resolving power of the compound light microscope. Also
discussed in this chapter are the ways in which microbes and their cells reproduce and how
microorganisms are classified.

In biology, a cell is defined as the fundamental unit of any living organism because, like the total
organism, the cell exhibits the basic characteristics of life. A cell obtains food (nutrients) from the
environment to produce energy for metabolism and other activities. Metabolism refers to all of the
chemical reactions that occur within a cell (see Chapter 7 for a detailed discussion of metabolism and
metabolic reactions). Because of its metabolism, a cell can grow and reproduce. It can respond to stimuli
in its environment such as light, heat, cold, and the presence of chemicals. A cell can mutate (change
genetically) as a result of accidental changes in its genetic material the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that
makes up the genes of its chromosomes—and, thus, can become better or less suited to its
environment. As a result of these genetic changes, the mutant organism may be better adapted for
survival and development into a new species (pl., species) of organism.

Bacterial cells exhibit all the characteristics of life, although they do not have the complex system of
membranes and organelles (tiny organlike structures) found in the more advanced single-celled
organisms. These less complex cells, which include Bacteria and Archaea, are called procaryotes or
procaryotic cells. a The more complex cells, containing a true nucleus and many membrane-bound
organelles, are called eucaryotes or eucaryotic cells. a Eucaryotes include such organisms as algae,
protozoa, fungi, plants, animals, and humans. Some microorganisms are procaryotic, some are
eucaryotic, and some are not cells at all (Fig. 3-1).

Viruses appear to be the result of regressive or reverse evolution. They are composed of only a few
genes protected by a protein coat, and sometimes may contain one or a few enzymes. Viruses depend
on the energy and metabolic machinery of a host cell to reproduce. Because viruses are acellular (not
composed of cells), they are placed in a completely separate category. They are discussed in detail in
Chapter 4.

For those in the health professions, it is important to learn differences in the structure of various cells,
not only for identification purposes, but also to understand differences in their metabolism. These
factors must be known before one can determine or explain why antimicrobial agents (drugs) attack and
destroy pathogens, but do not harm human cells.

Cytology, the study of the structure and function of cells, has developed during the past 75 years with
the aid of the electron microscope and sophisticated biochemical research. Many books have been
written about the details of these tiny functional factories—cells—but only a brief discussion of their
structure and activities is presented here.
EUCARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE

Eucaryotes (eu true; caryo refers to a nut or nucleus) are so named because they have a true nucleus, in
that their DNA is enclosed by a nuclear membrane. Most animal and plant cells are 10 to 30 m in
diameter, about 10 times larger than most procaryotic cells. Figure 3-2 illustrates a typical eucaryotic
animal cell. This illustration is a composite of most of the structures that might be found in the various
types of human body cells. Figure 3-3 is a transmission electron micrograph (TEM) of an actual yeast cell.
A discussion of the functional parts of eucaryotic cells can be better understood by keeping the
illustrated structures in mind.

Cell Membrane

Cell membranes have selective permeability, allowing only certain substances to pass through them.

The cell is enclosed and held intact by the cell membrane, which is also referred to as the plasma,
cytoplasmic, or cellular membrane. Structurally, it is a mosaic composed of large molecules of proteins
and phospholipids (certain types of fats). The cell membrane is like a “skin” around the cell, separating
the contents of the cell from the outside world. The cell membrane regulates the passage of nutrients,
waste products, and secretions into and out of the cell. Because the cell membrane has the property of
selective permeability, only certain substances may enter and leave the cell. The cell membrane is similar
in structure and function to all of the other membranes that are found in eucaryotic cells.

Nucleus

A “true nucleus” consists of nucleoplasm, chromosomes, and a nuclear membrane.

An organism’s complete collection of genes is referred to as its genotype or genome.

As previously mentioned, the primary difference between procaryotic and eucaryotic cells is that
eucaryotic cells possess a “true nucleus,” whereas procaryotic cells do not. The nucleus (pl., nuclei)
controls the functions of the entire cell and can be thought of as the “command center” of the cell. The
nucleus has three components: nucleoplasm, chromosomes, and a nuclear membrane. Nucleoplasm (a
type of protoplasm) is the gelatinous matrix or base material of the nucleus. The chromosomes are
embedded or suspended in the nucleoplasm. The membrane that serves as a “skin” around the nucleus
is called the nuclear membrane; it contains holes (nuclear pores) through which large molecules can
enter and exit the nucleus.

Eucaryotic chromosomes consist of linear DNA molecules and proteins (histones and nonhistone
proteins). Genes are located along the DNA molecules. Although genes are sometimes described as
“beads on a string,” each bead (gene) is actually a particular segment of the DNA molecule. Each gene
contains the genetic information that enables the cell to produce one or more gene products. Most gene
products are proteins, but some genes code for the production of two types of ribonucleic acid (RNA):
ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) and transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) molecules (discussed in Chapter
6). The organism’s complete collection of genes is referred to as that organism’s genotype (or genome).
To understand more about how genes control the activities of the entire organism, refer to Chapters 6
and 7. The number and composition of chromosomes and the number of genes on each chromosome
are characteristic of the particular species of organism. Different species have different numbers and
sizes of chromosomes. Human diploid cells, for example, have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs), each
consisting of thousands of genes. It has been estimated that the human genome consists of between
20,000 and 30,000 genes.b When observed using a transmission electron microscope, a dark (electron
dense) area can be seen in the nucleus. This area is called the nucleolus; it is here that rRNA molecules
are manufactured. The rRNA molecules then exit the nucleus and become part of the structure of
ribosomes (discussed later in this chapter).

Cytoplasm

Cytoplasm (a type of protoplasm) is a semifluid, gelatinous, nutrient matrix. Within the cytoplasm are
found insoluble storage granules and various cytoplasmic organelles, including endoplasmic reticulum,
ribosomes, Golgi complexes, mitochondria, centrioles, microtubules, lysosomes, and other membrane-
bound vacuoles. Each of these organelles has a highly specific function, and all of the functions are
interrelated to maintain the cell and allow it to properly perform its activities. The cytoplasm is where
most of the cell’s metabolic reactions occur. The semifluid portion of the cytoplasm, excluding the
granules and organelles, is sometimes referred to as the cytosol.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a highly convoluted system of membranes that are interconnected
and arranged to form a transport network of tubules and flattened sacs within the cytoplasm. Much of
the ER has a rough, granular appearance when observed by transmission electron microscopy and is
designated as rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER). This rough appearance is caused by the many
ribosomes attached to the outer surface of the membranes. ER to which ribosomes are not attached is
called smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).

Ribosomes

Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.

Eucaryotic ribosomes are 18 to 22 nm in diameter. They consist mainly of rRNA and protein and play an
important part in the synthesis (manufacture) of proteins. Clusters of ribosomes (called polyribosomes
or polysomes), held together by a molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA), are sometimes observed by
electron microscopy.

Each eucaryotic ribosome is composed of two subunits—a large subunit (the 60S subunit) and a small
subunit (the 40S subunit)—that are produced in the nucleolus. The subunits are then transported to the
cytoplasm where they remain separate until such time as they join together with an mRNA molecule to
initiate protein synthesis (Chapter 6). When united, the 40S and 60S subunits form an 80S ribosome.
(The “S” refers to Svedberg units, and 40S, 60S, and 80S are sedimentation coefficients. A sedimentation
coefficient expresses the rate at which a particle or molecule moves in a centrifugal field; it is
determined by the size and shape of the particle or molecule.)

Most of the proteins released from the ER are not mature. They must undergo further processing in an
organelle known as a Golgi complex before they are able to perform their functions within or outside of
the cell.
Golgi Complex

Golgi complexes can be considered “packaging plants.”

A Golgi complex, also known as a Golgi apparatus or Golgi body, connects or communicates with the ER.
This stack of flattened, membranous sacs completes the transformation of newly synthesized proteins
into mature, functional ones and packages them into small, membrane-enclosed vesicles for storage
within the cell or export outside the cell (exocytosis or secretion). Golgi complexes are sometimes
referred to as “packaging plants.”

Lysosomes and Peroxisomes

Lysosomes are small (about 1 m diameter) vesicles that originate at the Golgi complex. They contain
lysozyme and other digestive enzymes that break down foreign material taken into the cell by
phagocytosis (the engulfing of large particles by amebas and certain types of white blood cells called
phagocytes). These enzymes also aid in breaking down worn out parts of the cell and may destroy the
entire cell by a process called autolysis if the cell is damaged or deteriorating. Lysosomes are found in all
eucaryotic cells.

Peroxisomes are membrane-bound vesicles in which hydrogen peroxide is both generated and broken
down. Peroxisomes contain the enzyme catalase, which catalyzes (speeds up) the breakdown of
hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen. Peroxisomes are found in most eucaryotic cells, but are
especially prominent in mammalian liver cells.

Mitochondria

Mitochondria can be considered “power plants” or “energy factories.”

The energy necessary for cellular function is provided by the formation of high-energy phosphate
molecules such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP molecules are the major energy-carrying or energy-
storing molecules within cells. Mitochondria (sing., mitochondrion) are referred to as the “power plants,”
“powerhouses,” or “energy factories” of the eucaryotic cell, because this is where most of the ATP
molecules are formed by cellular respiration. During this process, energy is released from glucose
molecules and other nutrients to drive other cellular functions (see Chapter 7). The number of
mitochondria in a cell varies greatly depending on the activities required of that cell. Mitochondria are
about 0.5 to 1 m in diameter and up to 7 m in length. Many scientists believe that mitochondria and
chloroplasts arose from bacteria living within eucaryotic cells (see “Insight: The Origin of Mitochondria
and Chloroplasts” on the CD-ROM ).

Plastids

Plastids are the sites of photosynthesis.

Plant cells contain both mitochondria and another type of energy-producing organelle, called a plastid.
Plastids are membrane-bound structures containing various photosynthetic pigments; they are the sites
of photosynthesis. Chloroplasts, one type of plastid, contain a green, photosynthetic pigment called
chlorophyll. Chloroplasts are found in plant cells and algae. Photosynthesis is the process by which light
energy is used to convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates and oxygen (Chapter 7). The
chemical bonds in the carbohydrate molecules represent stored energy. Thus, photosynthesis is the
conversion of light energy into chemical energy.

Cytoskeleton

Present throughout the cytoplasm is a system of fibers, collectively known as the cytoskeleton. The three
types of cytoskeletal fibers are microtubules, microfilaments (actin filaments), and intermediate
filaments. All three types serve to strengthen, support, and stiffen the cell, and give the cell its shape. In
addition to their structural roles, microtubules and microfilaments are essential for various activities,
such as cell division, contraction, motility (see the section on flagella and cilia), and the movement of
chromosomes within the cell. Microtubules are slender, hollow tubules composed of spherical protein
subunits called tubulins.

Cell Wall

Some eucaryotic cells contain cell walls—external structures that provide rigidity, shape, and protection
(Fig. 3-4). Eucaryotic cell walls, which are much simpler in structure than procaryotic cell walls, may
contain cellulose, pectin, lignin, chitin, and some mineral salts (usually found in algae). The cell walls of
algae contain a polysaccharide—cellulose—that is not found in the cell walls of any other
microorganisms. Cellulose is also found in the cell walls of plants. The cell walls of fungi contain a
polysaccharide—chitin—that is not found in the cell walls of any other microorganisms. Chitin, which is
similar in structure to cellulose, is also found in the exoskeletons of beetles and crabs.

Flagella and Cilia

Motile eucaryotic cells possess either flagella or cilia.

Some eucaryotic cells (e.g., spermatozoa and certain types of protozoa and algae) possess relatively long,
thin structures called flagella (sing., flagellum). Such cells are said to be flagellated or motile; flagellated
protozoa are called flagellates. The whipping motion of the flagella enables flagellated cells to “swim”
through liquid environments; flagella are said to be whiplike. Flagella are referred to as organelles of
locomotion (cell movement). Flagellated cells may possess one flagellum or two or more flagella. Cilia
(sing., cilium) are also organelles of locomotion, but they tend to be shorter (more hairlike), thinner, and
more numerous than flagella. Cilia can be found on some species of protozoa (called ciliates) and on
certain types of cells in our bodies (e.g., the ciliated epithelial cells that line the respiratory tract). Unlike
flagella, cilia tend to beat with a coordinated, rhythmic movement. Eucaryotic flagella and cilia, which
contain an internal “9  2” arrangement of microtubules (Fig. 3-5), are structurally more complex than
bacterial flagella.