Eleonora Raimondo Ultrastructure of cells Biology Exam

1.2 Ultrastructure of cells

Cells are generally very small and are invisible without a

microscope. Eukaryotic cells vary between 10 and 100 μm in diameter,
while prokaryotic cells range from 0.1 to 5.0 μm in diameter. The invention of
the light microscope in the early nineteenth century made the study of tissues
and cell structure possible. This allowed the development of the cell theory , as
well as the accumulation of a large amount of information on the similarities
and differences among cells from a huge number of organisms. Nonetheless, the
detailed structure of cells was not unravelled until the far more powerful
electron microscope was invented in the early 1930s.

Through innovations in the field of microscopy, scientists have been able to

develop a better understanding of cell types and cellular structures. Cells were
originally categorised as two main types: prokaryotes (Figure 1) and eukaryotes
(Figure 2). Further work, which is discussed in Topic 5, by Carl Woese and
others classified all life on Earth into three domains: Bacteria (which are
prokaryotic), Archaea (which are also considered prokaryotic)
and Eukaryota (the eukaryotes). The main differences between prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells are:

 Eukaryotic cells have a separate membrane-enclosed nucleus, whereas

the DNA of prokaryotes is freely floating in the cytoplasm.
 Eukaryotic cells have a complex system of membrane-bound organelles
that divides the cell into numerous enclosed regions – known as
compartmentalisation.
 Prokaryotes do not have any membrane-bound organelles.

Figure 1. Generalised prokaryotic cell. 

Figure 2. Generalised eukaryotic cell.

 Eleonora Raimondo Ultrastructure of cells Biology Exam

Prokaryotes

Prokaryotes are considered to be the earliest and most primitive type of cell,
originating some 3.5 billion years ago. They include bacteria and archaea.
These unicellular organisms belong to different domains due to wall
composition and RNA. The domain of Prokaryota shows an enormous variety
of species. They are found everywhere, including the most inhospitable places;
from boiling wells, to deep mine shafts, to the ocean floor. Additionally, they
have the simplest system that allows all processes of life to be carried out. They
are simple unicellular organisms, with no internal compartmentalisation, no
nucleus and no membrane-bound organelles. All metabolic processes thus occur
within the cytoplasm.

Figure 1. An electron micrograph of a bacterial cell.

Cell wall: Encloses the cell, protecting it and helping to maintain its shape; prevents the .
cell from bursting in hypotonic (dilute) media

Plasma membrane: Surrounds the cell, controlling the movement of substances in and out
of the cell.

Cytoplasm: Medium that fills the cell and is the site of all metabolic reactions.

Pili (singular: pilus): Protein filaments on the cell wall that help in cell adhesion and in
transferring of DNA between two cells.

Flagella (singular: flagellum): Much longer than pili, these are responsible for the
locomotion of the organism. Their whip-like movement propels the cell along.

70S ribosomes: Are the sites of protein synthesis.

Nucleoid region (which includes naked DNA, that is, DNA not associated with proteins
known as histones): Controls all the activities of the cell, as well as the reproduction of the
 Eleonora Raimondo Ultrastructure of cells Biology Exam

organism.

Plasmid: Small circles of DNA that carry a few genes; often these genes give the cell
antibiotic resistance and are used in creating genetically modified bacteria.

Ribosomes in prokaryotic cells (70S) are smaller than ribosomes found in eukaryotic cells
(80S). 70S and 80S refers to the sedimentation rate of RNA subunits.

Figure 2. Binary fission in a prokaryotic cell.

Binary fission is a means used by
prokaryotes to reproduce
asexually. It involves the following
steps:

 The chromosome is replicated semi-

conservatively, beginning at the point of origin (shown in red in Figure 2).
 Beginning with the point of origin, the two copies of DNA move to opposite ends of
the cell.
 The cell elongates (grows longer).
 The plasma membrane grows inward and pinches off to form two separate,
genetically identical cells.

Understanding the process of binary fission is of great interest to scientists as it may help
in the design of new chemicals or novel antibiotics that specifically target and interfere
with cell division in bacteria.

Eukaryotes

Eukaryotes are organisms with complex cells, in which the genetic material is isolated
from the cytoplasm by a membrane-bound structure called the nucleus. Eukaryotes
represent one of the three domains (Bacteria, Archaea and Eukaryota) and include four
kingdoms: Protocista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.

Eukaryotes vary in size, therefore to see each yeast cell, you need a light microscope,
while huge sea creatures are hard to miss with the naked eye.

However, Armillaria ostoyae, a fungus growing in forests in North America, is several

hundred hectares (1 hectare = 10,000 m2) in size, and its total mass is considerably higher
than that of a blue whale.
 Eleonora Raimondo Ultrastructure of cells Biology Exam

Figure 1. The fungus, Armillaria ostoyae, grows in

forests. The mushrooms that appear above ground are
part of a much larger fungus that is underground. The
largest is estimated to be 3.8 km across.

 
Compartmentalisation refers to the formation of
compartments within the cell by membrane-bound
organelles. 
All eukaryotes have a compartmentalised cell structure, wherein membranes are used to
isolate certain parts of the cell from the rest to form separate organelles. For instance, the
inside of the mitochondrion is completely sealed from the cytoplasm by the mitochondrial
envelope, allowing it to carry out reactions without being affected by other reactions
occurring in the cell.

The advantages of eukaryotic cells being compartmentalised are:

 Greater efficiency of metabolism as enzymes and substrates are enclosed, and

therefore much more concentrated, in the particular organelles responsible for
specific functions.

 Internal conditions such as pH can be differentiated in a cell to maintain the optimal

conditions for different enzymes.

 Isolation of toxic or damaging substances away from the cytoplasm, such as the
storage of hydrolytic enzymes in lysosomes.

 Flexibility of changing the numbers and position of organelles within the cell based
on the cell’s requirements.

Eukaryotic cell structure

Eukaryotic cells can be observed

using a light microscope. At this
magnification, only larger structures
such as cell membrane, cell wall,
nucleus, central vacuole and
chloroplasts can be seen.

Animal cell:
 Eleonora Raimondo Ultrastructure of cells Biology Exam

Plant cell:

The function of cellular

structures found in animal and
plant cells (eukaryotic cells)

Vacuole: Helps in the osmotic balance of the cell and in the storage of
substances. It may also have hydrolytic functions similar to lysosomes.
Cell wall (absent from animal cells): Protects the cell, maintains its shape and
prevents it from bursting in hypotonic media.
Eleonora Raimondo Ultrastructure of cells Biology Exam

Chloroplast (absent from animal cells): These are double-membrane-bound

organelles. They contain pigments (in this case mainly chlorophyll) and are
responsible for photosynthesis.

An exocrine cell from the pancreas (an animal cell).

An exocrine gland secretes enzymes into

a duct. In the case of the exocrine cell
from the pancreas, it secretes digestive
enzymes via the pancreatic duct into
the small intestine, where they aid the
digestion of food. Since enzymes are proteins,
exocrine cells will have a well-developed
network of rough endoplasmic reticulum
for protein synthesis, as well as Golgi apparatus that
produce vesicles containing these enzymes. The
vesicles merge with the plasma
membrane to release their content into
the small intestine.

A closer look at palisade mesophyll

cells

Figure 5. A palisade mesophyll cell. 

Depicts a palisade mesophyll

cell, containing many
chloroplasts. These organelles
are the site of photosynthesis.
In plants, the palisade
mesophyll tissue contains the
greatest number of
chloroplasts per cell and is
positioned right under the
upper epidermis where it is
exposed to the highest amount of light. The main function of the palisade
mesophyll cells is to photosynthesise; producing complex organic compounds,
using carbon dioxide and water as starting materials.