STUCTURE OF

MICROORGANISMS
 CELL
fundamental unit of any living organism
because, like the total organism the cell
exhibits the basic characteristics of life.

obtains food (nutrients) from the

environment to produce energy for
metabolism and other activities.
 HISTORY OF CELL
1665
• An English physicist named Robert Hooke
published a book, entitled Micrographia,
containing de- scriptions of objects he had
observed using a compound light microscope
that he had made. These objects in- cluded
molds, rusts, fleas, lice, fossilized plants and
an- imals, and sections of cork. Hooke referred
to the small empty chambers in the structure of
cork as "cells," probably because they reminded
him of the bare rooms (called cells) in a
monastery. Hooke was the first person to use
the term cells in this manner.
1838-1839
• A German botanist named
Matthias Schleiden and a German
zoologist named Theodor
Schwann con- cluded that all plant
and animal tissues were composed
of cells; this later became known
as the cell theory.
1858
• the German pathologist Rudolf
Virchow proposed the theory of
biogenesis-that life can only arise
from preexisting life, and, therefore,
that cells can only arise from
preexisting cells. Biogenesis does
not address the issue of the origin
of life on Earth, a complex topic
about which much has been written.
 METABOLISM
refers to all of the chemical reactions that occur within a cell. Because of
its metabolism, a cell can grow and reproduce. It can respond to stimuli
in its environment such as light, heat, cold, and the presence of
chemicals.
A cell can mutate (change genetically) as a result of accidental changes in
its genetic material, the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that makes up the
genes of its chromosomes-and, thus, can become better or less suited to
its environment. As a result of these genetic changes, the mutant
organism may be better adapted for survival and development into a new
species of organism.
 PROCARYOTES OR
PROCARYOTIC CELLS
-less complex cells which
include Bacteria and
Archaea
 EUCARYOTES OR
EUCARYOTIC CELLS
-more complex cells, containing a true
nucleus and many membrane-bound
organelles.

-include algae, protozoa, fungi, plants,

animals and humans.
-appear to be the result of regressive or reverse
evolution. They are composed of only a few
genes protected by a protein coat, and
sometimes may contain one or a few enzymes.

-depend on the energy and metabolic

machinery of a host cell to reproduce. Because
viruses are acellular (not composed of cells),
Viruses
they are placed in a completely separate
category
CYTOLOGY
• the study of the structure and function of cells, has
developed during the past 75 years with the aid of
the electron microscope\ and sophisticated
biochemical research.
PROCARYOTIC
CELL STRUCTURE
 What is a prokaryotic Cell? Intro

 Procaryotic cells are about 10 times smaller than eucaryotic cells. A typical
Escherichia coli cell is about 1 μm wide and 2 to 3 μm long. Structurally,
procaryotes are very simple cells when compared with eucaryotic cells,
and yet they are able to perform the necessary processes of life.

 How do Procaryotic Cells reproduced?

 Reproduction of procaryotic cells is by binary fission - the simple division
of one cell into two cells, after DNA replication and the formation of a
separating membrane and cell wall. All bacteria are procaryotes, as are the
archaea.
 Cell Membrane
 Enclosing the cytoplasm of a procaryotic cell is the
cell membrane (or plasma, cytoplasmic, or cellular
membrane). Being selectively permeable, the
membrane controls which substances may or leave
the cell. It is flexible and so thin that it cannot be
seen with a compound light microscope. However, it
is frequently observed in TEMs of bacteria.
 Chromosome
 The procaryotic chromosome usually consists of a
single, long, supercoiled, circular DNA molecule, which
serves as the control center of the bacterial cell. It is
capable of duplicating itself, guiding cell division, and
directing cellular activities. procaryotic cell contains
neither nucleoplasm nor a nuclear membrane.

 A plasmid may contain anywhere from fewer than 10

genes to several hundred genes. A bacterial cell may not
contain any plasmids, or it may contain one plasmid,
multiple copies of the same plasmid, or more than one
type of plasmid.
 Cytoplasm
 The semiliquid cytoplasm of procaryotic
cells consists of water, enzymes, dissolved
oxygen (in some bacteria), waste products,
essential nutrients, proteins, carbohydrates,
and ipids complex mixture of all the
materials required by the cell for its
metabolic functions.
 Cytoplasmic Particles
 Within the bacterial cytoplasm, many tiny particles have
been observed. Most of these are ribosomes, often occurring
in clusters called polyribosomes or polysomes (poly
meaning many). Procaryotic ribosomes are smaller than
eucaryotic ribosomes, but their function is the they are the
sites of protein synthesis. A 70S procaryotic ribosome is
composed of a 30S subunit and a 50S subunit. It has been
estimated that there are about 15,000 ribosomes in the
cytoplasm of an E. coli cell.
 Bacterial Cell Wall
 The main constituent of most bacterial cell walls is a complex
macromolecular polymer known as peptidoglycan (murein),
consisting of many polysaccharide chains can linked together by small
peptide (protein) chains.

 The cell walls of certain bacteria, called Gram-positive bacteria, have

a thick layer of peptidoglycan combined with teichoic acid and
lipoteichoic acid molecules. The cell walls of Gram-negative bacteria
have a much thinner layer of peptidoglycan, but this layer is covered
with a complex layer of lipid macromolecules, usually referred to as
the outer membrane.
Glycocalyx (Slime Layers and
Capsules)
 Glycocalyx is a slimy, gelatinous material
produced by the cell membrane and created
outside of the cell wall. There are two types of
glycocalyx. One type, called a slime layer, is not
highly organized and is not firmly attached to the
cell wall. It easily detaches from the cell wall and
drifts away.
 The other type of glycocalyx, called a
capsule, is highly organized and firmly
attached to the cell wall. Capsules usually
consist of polysaccharides, which may be
combined with lipids and proteins,
depending on the bacterial species.

 Capsules can be detected using a capsule

staining procedure, which is a type of
negative stain. The bacterial cell and
background become stained, but the capsule
remains unstained (Fig. 3-10).
 Encapsulated bacteria usually produce colonies on
nutrient agar that are smooth, mucoid, and
glistening; they are referred to S-colonies.

 Nonencapsulated bacteria tend to grow as dry, rough

colonies, called R-colonies. Capsules serve an
antiphagocytic function, protecting the encapsulated
bacteria from being phagocytized (ingested) by
phagocytic white blood cells.
PROCARYOTIC
CELL STRUCTURE
 What is a prokaryotic Cell? Intro

 Procaryotic cells are about 10 times smaller than eucaryotic cells. A typical
Escherichia coli cell is about 1 μm wide and 2 to 3 μm long. Structurally,
procaryotes are very simple cells when compared with eucaryotic cells,
and yet they are able to perform the necessary processes of life.

 How do Procaryotic Cells reproduced?

 Reproduction of procaryotic cells is by binary fission - the simple division
of one cell into two cells, after DNA replication and the formation of a
separating membrane and cell wall. All bacteria are procaryotes, as are the
archaea.
 Cell Membrane
 Enclosing the cytoplasm of a procaryotic cell is the
cell membrane (or plasma, cytoplasmic, or cellular
membrane). Being selectively permeable, the
membrane controls which substances may or leave
the cell. It is flexible and so thin that it cannot be
seen with a compound light microscope. However, it
is frequently observed in TEMs of bacteria.
 Chromosome
 The procaryotic chromosome usually consists of a
single, long, supercoiled, circular DNA molecule, which
serves as the control center of the bacterial cell. It is
capable of duplicating itself, guiding cell division, and
directing cellular activities. procaryotic cell contains
neither nucleoplasm nor a nuclear membrane.

 A plasmid may contain anywhere from fewer than 10

genes to several hundred genes. A bacterial cell may not
contain any plasmids, or it may contain one plasmid,
multiple copies of the same plasmid, or more than one
type of plasmid.
 Cytoplasm
 The semiliquid cytoplasm of procaryotic
cells consists of water, enzymes, dissolved
oxygen (in some bacteria), waste products,
essential nutrients, proteins, carbohydrates,
and ipids complex mixture of all the
materials required by the cell for its
metabolic functions.
 Cytoplasmic Particles
 Within the bacterial cytoplasm, many tiny particles have
been observed. Most of these are ribosomes, often occurring
in clusters called polyribosomes or polysomes (poly
meaning many). Procaryotic ribosomes are smaller than
eucaryotic ribosomes, but their function is the they are the
sites of protein synthesis. A 70S procaryotic ribosome is
composed of a 30S subunit and a 50S subunit. It has been
estimated that there are about 15,000 ribosomes in the
cytoplasm of an E. coli cell.
 Bacterial Cell Wall
 The main constituent of most bacterial cell walls is a complex
macromolecular polymer known as peptidoglycan (murein),
consisting of many polysaccharide chains can linked together by small
peptide (protein) chains.

 The cell walls of certain bacteria, called Gram-positive bacteria, have

a thick layer of peptidoglycan combined with teichoic acid and
lipoteichoic acid molecules. The cell walls of Gram-negative bacteria
have a much thinner layer of peptidoglycan, but this layer is covered
with a complex layer of lipid macromolecules, usually referred to as
the outer membrane.
Glycocalyx (Slime Layers and
Capsules)
 Glycocalyx is a slimy, gelatinous material
produced by the cell membrane and created
outside of the cell wall. There are two types of
glycocalyx. One type, called a slime layer, is not
highly organized and is not firmly attached to the
cell wall. It easily detaches from the cell wall and
drifts away.
 The other type of glycocalyx, called a
capsule, is highly organized and firmly
attached to the cell wall. Capsules usually
consist of polysaccharides, which may be
combined with lipids and proteins,
depending on the bacterial species.

 Capsules can be detected using a capsule

staining procedure, which is a type of
negative stain. The bacterial cell and
background become stained, but the capsule
remains unstained (Fig. 3-10).
 Encapsulated bacteria usually produce colonies on
nutrient agar that are smooth, mucoid, and
glistening; they are referred to S-colonies.

 Nonencapsulated bacteria tend to grow as dry, rough

colonies, called R-colonies. Capsules serve an
antiphagocytic function, protecting the encapsulated
bacteria from being phagocytized (ingested) by
phagocytic white blood cells.
Flagella
Flagella (sing., flagellum) are
threadlike, protein appendages that enable bacteria to move.
Flagellated bacteria are said to
be motile, whereas nonflagellated bacteria are usually nonmotile.
Bacterial flagella are
about 10 to 20 nm thick; too thin to be seen with the compound light
microscope.
 Peritrichous bacteria

Bacteria possessing flagella over

their entire surface (perimeter).

Lophotrichous

Bacteriabacteria
with a tuft of

flagella at one end.

Amphitrichous bacteria Monotrichous bacteria

Having one or more flagella at Bacteria
possessing a single polar flagellum.
each end.
 Flagella Stain
In the laboratory, the number
of flagella that a cell possesses and
their locations on the
cell can be determined using what
is known as a flagella
stain. The stain adheres to the
flagella, making them
thick enough to be seen under the
microscope.
Pili (Fimbriae)
Pili (sing., pilus) or fimbriae (sing., fimbria) are hairlike
structures, most often observed on Gram-negative

bacteria. They are composed of polymerized protein

molecules called pilin. Pili are much thinner than flagella, have
a rigid structure, and are not associated with

motility. These tiny appendages arise from the cytoplasm and

extend through the plasma membrane, cell
 2 Types
1 Merely enables bacteria
2 Sex pilus -
to adhere or attach to enables transfer of
surfaces; genetic material from one
bacterial

cell to another following

attachment of the cells to
each other
 Spores (Endospores)
Bacterial spores are small oval or spherical structures that
are very resistant to high temperatures, radiation,
desiccation, and chemical agents. When they are formed
intracellularly, they are called endospore. The bacterial
cell producing spore is called vegetative cell. The spore is
formed as a response to adverse conditions.
REPRODUCTION OF ORGANISMS
AND THEIR CELLS
• Reproduction – refer to the manner in which organisms
reproduce

• Cell reproduction – refer to the process by which individual cells

reproduce
Asexual Reproduction versus
Sexual Reproduction
 Asexual Reproduction

• Asexual reproduction
refers to the type of
reproduction in which only
a single organism gives rise
to a new individual.
 Sexual Reproduction

• Sexual reproduction is a type

of reproduction that involves
the production of an
offspring by the fusion of
male and female gametes
 Life Cycle
• refer to the sequence of
stages that an organism
goes through from birth to
reproduction and
eventually death.
 Eukaryotic cell production (mitosis and
meiosis)
• Mitosis – is the • Meiosis – is a
process by which a specialized form of
single cell divides cell division that
into two identical occurs in cells
daughter cells. involved in sexual
reproduction. It
result in the
formation of
gametes (with half
the number of
chromosomes as
the parent cell.
Procaryotic Cell Reproduction
Procaryotic Cell Reproduction

• Procaryotic cells reproduce by a process known as binary fission.

• In binary fission, a single procaryotic cell must undergo DNA replication.
• The time it takes for one procaryotic cell to divide and become two cells is referred to as the
generation time.
• The generation time varies from one species to another and also depends on the growth
conditions (i.e. pH, temperature, and nutrient availability).
• In the laboratory (in vitro), under ideal conditions, E. coli can have a generation time of about
20 minutes – the number of cells will double every 20 minutes.
 TAXONOMY
Ryxanne Bacarizas

Microbiology and Parasitology BSN-1

 TAXONOMY

• is the science of classification of living of

organisms
• consists of 3 separated but interrelated areas:
classification, nomenclature, and identification
Classification:
-arrangement of organisms into taxonomic groups or taxa (includes domain,
kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species)
-closely related organisms are placed into the same taxa

Nomenclature
-is the assignment of names to the various taxa according to international rules

Identification
-the process of determining whether an isolate belongs to one of the established,
named taxa or represents a previously unidentified species.
 an organism’s complete collection of genes
GENOTYPE
or an organism’s genetic makeup

PHENOTYPE observable traits and physical expression of

an organism
 MICROBIAL CLASSIFICATION

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
• discovered by Carolus Linnaeus in the 18th century
• is a system of naming species in which each species is given a two-part scientific
name consisting of its genus and species. For example, the microbial species
Escherichia coli, commonly known as E. coli, follows this naming convention,
where "Escherichia" is the genus and "coli" is the specific epithet.
 5 KINGDOM SYSTEM

MONERA BACTERIA AND ARCHAEA

(PROCARYOTAE)

PROTISTA ALGAE AND PROTOZOA

FUNGI FUNGI

PLANTAE PLANTS

ANIMALIA ANIMALS
 3 DOMAIN SYSTEM
BACTERIA ARCHAEA
Includes diverse and Consists of unicellular
widespread unicellular organisms with prokaryotic
organisms with prokaryotic cells, but they differ
cells, such as typical significantly from bacteria in
bacteria. terms of genetic and
biochemical characteristics.
EUKARYA
Encompasses all
organisms with eukaryotic
cells, including protists,
fungi, plants, and animals.
 EXAMPLES
1. Humans (Homo sapiens): 2. Escherichia coli: 3. Streptococcus pyogenes:
• Domain: Eukarya • Domain: Bacteria • Domain: Bacteria
• Kingdom: Animalia • Kingdom: Monera • Kingdom: Monera
• Phylum: Chordata • Phylum: Proteobacteria • Phylum: Firmicutes
• Subphylum: Vertebrata • Class: Gammaproteobacteria • Class: Bacilli
• Class: Mammalia • Order: Enterobacterales • Order: Lactobacillales
• Order: Primates • Family: Enterobacteriaceae • Family: Streptococcaceae
• Family: Hominidae • Genus: Escherichia • Genus: Streptococcus
• Genus: Homo • Species: coli • Species: pyogenes
• Species: sapiens
 DETERMINING
RELATEDNESS
AMONG ORGANISMS

By: sameha s. almansa

• We often cannot deny that we misinterpret to understand
the real meaning of relatedness.

• According to the scientific interpretation of various

legitimate researches is that:
“Common ancestry is the currency of evolutionary
relatedness. It is about sharing most recent common
ancestors which does not need to be very similar in
morphology (general appearance)”

- UC Museum of Paleontology: Understanding Evolution

HISTORICAL NOTE

• Carl R. Woese
- a molecular biologist at University of
Illinois together with his colleagues.
- developed a system classifying organisms
based on nucleotide sequences in bases of
their ribosomal RNA molecules. (1970s)
- demonstrated the two division of
prokaryotic organisms (referred as domains)
- Introduced his Three-Domain System of
Classification favoured mostly by
microbiologists.
• rRNA sequencing is the most widely used technique for gauging diversity or
relatedness of an organism to another organisms.
• Ribosomes are made up of 2 subunits:
- Small subunit – decodes genetic messages
- contains only one RNA molecule called small subunit
rRNA (SSUrRNA). In procaryotic ribosomes it is 16S rRNA containing 1500
DNA nucleotides and 18S for eucaryotes containing about 2000.
- Large subunit – mainly involved in peptide bond formation of growing
amino acid.
• Relatedness among organisms is determined by
analysis of genes that code for small subunit
ribosomal RNA (SSU-rRNA)
• As researchers conform, it is through comparison
of nucleotide base pairs in gene rather than the
actual SSUrRNA molecules.
• Used to identify pathogens in
Additional Application
clinical microbiology laboratory
of rRNA:
• Non-cultured or hard-to-identify
bacteria identification
• Analyse differentiation among
organisms despite of relatedness
Workflow (Process)
• The sample taken or being studied from the organisms typically
include the 16S rRNA (for bacteria) or Internal Transcribed
Spacer gene(for fungi) and others.
• Library construction is the process of sample transcription
ensuring rRNA molecules to be represented accurately and
efficiently sequenced. Once the completion of construction to be
done, it can be sequenced using sequencing technologies.
rRNA Sequencing Process and
Interpretation: 16S ribosomal
DNA