UNIT-1

INTRODUCTION

Bio-chemistry is the study of chemical substances and vital processes occurring

in living organisms. It includes the study of chemistry behind biological
processes and the synthesis of biologically active molecules.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPORTANCE OF BIOCHEMISTRY IN NURSING

 A review of the application of biochemistry in nursing needs to mention

of many therapeutic agents whose existence was first demonstrated on
lab experiments e.g. hormone insulin , all the vitamins and many other
products of therapeutic significant .
 If an infant’s is always vomiting after giving milk, she or he probably has
galactose intolerance.
 If an infant is born with jaundice, her or his liver is not fully functional.
 When colour of infant’s urine turns dark, probably he/she suffers from
an amino acid metabolic disorder.
 Anaemic children, older, elder, or geriatric persons can be explained
biochemistry,e.g intake of Fe, haemolytic disorder (G6PD defiency or
pyruate kinase deficiency) or a chronic renal disease.
 Many such conditions thus, can be explained on the basis of bio-
chemistry.

CELL STRUCTURE, COMPOSITION AND FUNCTION

CELL
Cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organism. Bacteria
are unicellular (consist of single cell), human beings are multicellular
(may have upto 10 cells.
 Each cell take nutrients and converts energy. a cell also carried
out specialized functions and reproduces and stores its own set
of instructions for carrying out these activities.
  There are two types of cells called prokaryote and eukaryote
cells. Prokaryote cells are usually independent while eukaryote
cells are found in multicellular organism.

Prokaryote cells

The simplest form and the first type of cells to evolve are prokaryote cells.
Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms that do not developed or differentiate
into multicellular forms .some bacteria grow in filaments or masses of cells but
each cell in the colony is identical and capable of independent existence. they
may adjacent to one another because they do not separate after cell division
though there is no continuity or communication between them.

 Besides lack of nuclear membrane, a prokaryote cell also lacks

intracellular organelles. Prokaryotic cells have three architectural region
that includes appendages called flagella and vili, cell envelope or cell
wall consisting of a capsule and a cytoplasmic region.
 Enclosing a cell, there is cell envelope ,which generally consists of a cell
wall, covering a plasma membrane .some bacteria have a further
covering layer, called capsule.
 A cell wall consists of peptidoglycans in bacteria and act as a barrier
against the external forces .it prevent the cell from expanding and
bursting insides the cell is cytoplasmic region that contains cell genome
(DNA), ribosome’s and various other inclusion.
 Prokaryotes carry chromosomal DNA elements called plasmids, it
functions such as antibiotics resistance.
 Eukaryote cell

 Eukaryote cells include fungi, animal cells, plant cells as well as some
unicellular organisms. it 10 times larger than a prokaryotic cell and can
be as much as 1000 times more in volume.
 Composition and functions
 Human body contains different organs such as the heart, lung and
kidneys each one of which performs different funtions.EC also have a set
of intracellular components called sub cellular organelles some of it
surrounded by a protective membrane. Composition and functions of
organelles are described below:
Plasma membrane The outer lining of a eukaryotic cell is called plasma
membrane. this serves to separate and protect cell from its surrounding
environment. it is made up of a double layer of proteins and lipids.

Cytoskeleton Cytoskeleton is a complex and dynamic component that acts to

organise and maintain cell shape, anchor organells in their place, helps during
endocytosis (uptake of material by the cell) and moves intracellular organelles
of the cell during the processes of growth and motility. There are a number of
proteins associated with cytoskeleton.

Cytoplasm Inside the cell there is a large fluid –filled space called cytoplasm. It
is like soup within which all the cell organelles .cytoplasm is also a home for
cytoskeleton.it contains several salts and is an excellent conductor of
electricity ,creating environment for the mechanics of the cell.

Nucleus Nucleus ,also called cells information centre, is the most conspicuous
organelle found in a eukaryotic cell. It houses cells chromosomes and is a place
where almost all the DNA replication and RNA synthesis occur. Nucleus is
spheroidal in shape and is separated from cytoplasm by a membrane called
nuclear envelope. Eukaryotic genetic material is more complex and is divided
into discrete units called genes. human genetic material is made up of two
distinct components called nuclrar genome and mitochondrial genome.

Ribosome Ribosome is a large complex composed of many molecules,

including RNA and proteins. these are responsible for the processing of genetic
instruction carried by mRNA. the process of converting mRNA codon into the
sequence of amino acids that make up a protein is called translation. some of
the ribosome float free in the cytoplasm, called free ribosome while others are
bound to endoplasmic reticulum.

Mitochondria and chloroplasts These are power generator and self-replicating

organelles. they occur in various numbers, shapes and sizes in the cytoplasm of
all eukaryotic cells. Both the organelles are surrounded by a double membrane
with an intermembrane space. they have many folding, filling their inner space.
they have two functionally distinct membrane systems, inward folds are called
cristae.

Chloroplast are similar to mitochondria but are found in plants where they
convert light energy (from the sun) into ATP through the process called
photosynthesis.

Endoplasmic recticulam and golgi apparatus ER is the transport network for

molecules. It is present in two forms called rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) . Proteins that are to be exported out
of the cell are passes to the Golgi apparatus, also called golgi bodies or Golgi
complex .

Lysosomes and peroxisomes They are also referred as garbage disposal system
of the cell.both are spherical ,bound by a single membrane and are rich in
digestive enzymes for degrading proteins, nucleic acids and polysaccharides
that work as low pH. an important function of lysosome is to digest foreign
bacteria that invade the cell. They also help in recycling of receptor proteins
and other membrane components , help in repair of the damage to plasma
membrane. Peroxisomes function to get the body of toxic substances such as
hydrogen peroxide or other metabolites, and contain enzyme for enzyme
utilization. higher number of peroxisomes can be found in liver where toxic by-
products are known to accumulate. it resemble lysosomes.peroxisomes are
self-replicating whereas lysosomes are formed in Golgi complex.

Centrosome called cytoskeleton organizer, produce microtubules of a cell,

which is the key component of cytoskeleton .cetrosomes are composed of two
centrioles. a single centrosome is present in animal cells. it found in some fungi
and algae.
Vacuoles Vacuoles store food and waste products. some vacuoles also store
water and are described as liquid –filled spaces. they are surrounded b

MICROSCOPY

Cells because of their small size cannot be seen by a naked eye, but can be
observed with the aid of instrument called “Microscope”.

It provides a magnified image of tiny objects.

Microscope gives a wide range of magnification, they are of 2 types.

1. Simple Microscope

2. Compound Microscope

Cell membrane It refers to the outer covering of the cell and is found in all
living cells. it is a highly viscous structure.

Fluid-mosaic model of cell membrane

Biological membranes have such a structure where some proteins span a lipid
bilayer while others are partially immersed. this is called Fluid-mosaic model as
a membrane consists of mosaic of proteins and lipids.

A simple microscope works like a biconvex lens.

Compound microscope employs two separate lens system for greater

magnification.

There are two types of compound microscope referred as optical or light

microscope and electron microscope.

Optical Microscope uses optical lens and light wave for magnification. It
magnifies about 1000 to 1500 times.

Electron Microscope – In electron microscope a magnification of 10000 to

50000 can be obtained and objects as smallest 1 – 2 microns can be
photographed.