BIOTECHNOLOGY:
MICROBIAL ECOLOGY AND MICROBIAL
BIOTECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
 The science of ecology is the systematic
study of the interrelationships that exist
between organisms and their environment.
 Microbial ecology is the study of the
numerous interrelationships between
microorganisms and the world around them.
 Microorganisms interact with humans in
many ways and at many levels.
 Microbes are essential in the fields of
biotechnology, bioremediation, genetic
engineering, and gene therapy.
SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIPS INVOLVING
MICROORGANISMS
SYMBIOSIS
 Symbiosis is defined as the living together
or closes association of two dissimilar
organisms (usually two different species).
 The organisms that live together in such a
relationship are referred to as symbionts.
NEUTRALISM
 The term neutralism is used to describe a
symbiotic relationship in which neither
symbiont is affected by the relationship.
COMMENSALISM
 Commensalism is a symbiotic relationship
that is beneficial to one symbiont and of no
consequence (i.e., is neither beneficial nor
harmful) to the other.
 A host is defined as a living organism that
harbors another living organism.
MUTUALISM
 Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship
that is beneficial to both symbionts (i.e.,
the relationship is mutually beneficial).
PARASITISM
 Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship
that is beneficial to one symbiont (the
parasite) and detrimental to the other
symbiont (the host).
 A change in conditions can cause one
type of symbiotic relationship to shift to
another type
INDIGENOUS MICROFLORA OF HUMAN
 A person’s indigenous microflora or
indigenous microbiota (sometimes referred
to as “normal flora”) includes all of the
microbes (bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and
viruses) that reside on and within that
person.
 A fetus has no indigenous microflora
 Transient microflora take up temporary
residence on and within humans.
 Destruction of the resident microflora
disturbs the delicate balance established
between the host and its microorganisms.
MICROFLORA OF THE SKIN
 The most common bacteria on the skin are
Staphylococcus, Corynebacterium, and
Propionibacterium spp.
 Although the skin is constantly exposed to
air, many of the bacteria that live on the skin
are anaerobes; in fact, anaerobes actually
outnumber aerobes.
 The number and variety of microorganisms
present on the skin depends on many
factors, such as the:
 Anatomical location
 Amount of moisture present
 Ph
 Temperature
 BIOTECHNOLOGY:
MICROBIAL ECOLOGY AND MICROBIAL
BIOTECHNOLOGY
 Salinity
 Presence of chemical wastes such
as urea and fatty acids
 Presence of other microbes, which
may be producing toxic substances
 Moist, warm conditions in hairy areas of the
body where there are many sweat and oil
glands, such as under the arms and in the
groin area, stimulate the growth of many
different microorganisms.
 Frequent washing with soap and water
removes most of the potentially harmful
transient microorganisms harbored in
sweat, oil, and other secretions from moist
body parts, as well as the dead epithelial
cells on which they feed.
MICROFLORA OF THE EARS AND EYES
 The middle ear and inner ear are usually
sterile, whereas the outer ear and the
auditory canal contain the same types of
microorganisms as are found on the skin.
 The external surface of the eye is
lubricated, cleansed, and protected by
tears, mucus, and sebum.
MICROFLORA OF THE RESPIRATORY
TRACT
 The nasal passages and throat have an
abundant and varied population of
microorganisms because these areas
provide moist, warm mucous membranes
that furnish excellent conditions for
microbial growth.
 The lower respiratory tract is usually free of
microbes because the mucous membranes
and lungs have defense mechanisms that
efficiently remove invaders.
MICROFLORA OF THE ORAL CAVITY
 The anatomy of the oral cavity (mouth)
affords shelter for numerous anaerobic and
aerobic bacteria. Anaerobic microorganisms
flourish in gum margins, crevices between
the teeth, and deep folds (crypts) on the
surface of the tonsils.
 The most common organisms in the
indigenous microflora of the mouth are
various species of hemolytic streptococci.
 It includes Gram-positive and Gram-
negative bacteria (both cocci and bacilli),
spirochetes, and sometimes yeasts, mould
like organisms, protozoa, and viruses.
MICROFLORA OF THE
GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
 The gastrointestinal (GI) tract (or digestive
tract) consists of a long tube with many
expanded areas designed for digestion of
food, absorption of nutrients, and
elimination of undigested materials.
 The colon contains as many as 500 to 600
different species— primarily bacteria.
 Also, many fungi, protozoa, and viruses can
live in the colon
 Many microbes are removed from the GI
tract as a result of defecation.
MICROFLORA OF THE GENITOURINARY
TRACT
 The genitourinary (GU) tract (or urogenital
tract) consists of the urinary tract (kidneys,
ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra) and
the various parts of the male and female
reproductive systems.
 The reproductive systems of both men and
women are usually sterile, except for the
vagina; here, the microflora varies with the
stage of sexual development.
 The similarly sounding terms vaginitis and
vaginosis both refer to vaginal infections
 BIOTECHNOLOGY:
MICROBIAL ECOLOGY AND MICROBIAL
BIOTECHNOLOGY
MICROBIAL COMMUNITIES
BENEFICIAL AND HARMFUL ROLES OF
INDIGENOUS MICROFLORA
 Certain of our intestinal bacteria are
beneficial to us in that they produce useful
vitamins and other nutrients.
 Humans derive many benefits from their
indigenous microflora, some of which have
already been mentioned.
 The mere presence of large numbers of
microorganisms at certain anatomic
locations is beneficial, in that they prevent
pathogens from colonizing those locations.
MICROBIAL ANTAGONISM
 The term microbial antagonism means
“microbes versus microbes” or “microbes
against microbes.”
 Many members of our indigenous microflora
serve a beneficial role by preventing other
microbes from becoming established in or
colonizing a particular anatomic location.
OPPORTUNISTIC PATHOGENS
 Opportunistic pathogens (opportunists) can
be thought of as organisms that are hanging
around, awaiting the opportunity to cause
infections
SYNERGISM
BIOTHERAPEUTIC AGENTS
 Bacteria and yeasts that are ingested to
reestablish and stabilize the microbial
balance within our bodies are called
biotherapeutic agents or probiotics.
 Bacteria and yeasts used in this manner are
called biotherapeutic agents (or probiotics).
 In nature, microbes are often organized into
complex and persistant communities of
assorted organisms called biofilms.
 Biofilms have medical significance. They
form on bones, heart valves, tissues, and
inanimate objects such as artificial heart
valves, catheters, and prosthetic implants
 Biofilms have been implicated in diseases
such as endocarditis, cystic fibrosis, middle
ear infections, kidney stones, periodontal
disease, and prostate infections.
 Dental plaque consists of a community of
microorganisms attached to various proteins
and glycoproteins adsorbed onto tooth
surfaces
 Biofilms are very resistant to antibiotics,
disinfectants, and certain types of host
defense mechanisms.
 Biofilms are resistant to certain types of host
defense mechanisms.
 Bacteria within biofilms are protected from
antibiotics and certain types of host defense
mechanisms
 Research has shown that bacteria within
biofilms produce many different types of
proteins that those same organisms do not
produce when they are grown in pure
culture. Some of these proteins are involved
in the formation of the extracellular matrix
and microcolonies.
 When two or more microbes “team up” to
produce a disease that neither could cause
by itself, the phenomenon is referred to as
synergism or a synergistic relationship, and
the diseases they cause are referred to as
synergistic infections, polymicrobial
infections, or mixed infections.
 BIOTECHNOLOGY:
MICROBIAL ECOLOGY AND MICROBIAL
BIOTECHNOLOGY
AGRICULTURAL MICROBIOLOGY
 They are used extensively in the field of
genetic engineering to create new or
genetically altered plants.
 Many microorganisms are decomposers,
which return minerals and other nutrients to
soil.
ROLE OF MICROBES IN ELEMENTAL
CYCLES
 Bacteria are exceptionally adaptable and
versatile.
 The cycling of elements by microorganisms
is sometimes referred to as biogeochemical
cycling.
 The nitrogen cycle involves nitrogen-fixing
bacteria, nitrifying bacteria, and denitrifying
bacteria.
 Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria (e.g.,
Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium spp.) live in
and near the root nodules of plants called
legumes, such as alfalfa, clover, peas,
soybeans, and peanuts.
OTHER SOIL MICROORGANISMS
 In addition to the bacteria that play essential
roles in elemental cycles, there are a
multitude of other microorganisms in soil—
bacteria (including cyanobacteria), fungi
(primarily moulds), algae, protozoa, viruses,
and viroids.
 The spores of many human pathogens can
be found in soil, including those of
Clostridium spp., Bacillus anthracis, and
Cryptococcus neoformans.
 The types and amounts of microorganisms
living in soil depend on many factors,
including the amount of decaying organic
material, available nutrients, moisture
content, amount of oxygen available, pH,
temperature, and the presence of waste
products of other microbes.
INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF FARM
ANIMALS
 Microbes cause many diseases of farm
animals, wild animals, zoo animals, and
domestic pets.
 Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (“mad
cow disease”), scrapie
 Blue tongue (sore muzzle), bovine viral
diarrhea (BVD), equine encephalomyelitis
(sleeping sickness), equine infectious
anemia, foot-and-mouth disease, infectious
bovine rhinotracheitis, influenza, rabies,
swine pox, vesicular stomatitis, warts
 Actinomycosis (“lumpy jaw”), anthrax,
blackleg, botulism, brucellosis (“Bang’s
disease), campylobacteriosis, distemper
(strangles), erysipelas, foot rot, fowl cholera,
leptospirosis, listeriosis, mastitis,
pasteurellosis, pneumonia, redwater
(bacillary hemoglobinuria), salmonellosis,
tetanus (“lock jaw”), tuberculosis, vibriosis
 Ringworm
 Anaplasmosis, bovine trichomoniasis, cattle
tick fever (babesiosis), coccidiosis,
cryptosporidiosis
MICROBIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY
 Biotechnology is defined as “any
technological application that uses
biological systems, living organisms, or
derivatives thereof, to make or modify
products or processes for specific use.”
 Production of therapeutic proteins. Human
genes are introduced (usually by
transformation) into bacteria and yeasts.
 Production of DNA vaccines. DNA vaccines
(also called gene vaccines) are presently
only experimental.
 BIOTECHNOLOGY:
MICROBIAL ECOLOGY AND MICROBIAL
BIOTECHNOLOGY
 Production of vitamins. Bacteria can be nickel, uranium, zinc, and other metals by a
used as sources of vitamins B2 (riboflavin), process known as leaching or bioleaching
B7 (biotin), B9 (folic acid), B12, and K2.  Bioremediation. The term bioremediation
 Use of microbial metabolites as refers to the use of microorganisms to clean
antimicrobial agents and other types of up various types of wastes
therapeutic agents. Penicillins and  Other.
cephalosporins are examples of antibiotics  Microbial enzymes used in industry include
produced by fungi. amylases, cellulase, collagenase, lactase,
 Agricultural Applications lipase, pectinase, and proteases.
 Certain microbial metabolites have  Two amino acids produced by microbes are
microbicidal, herbicidal, insecticidal, used in the artificial sweetener called
or nematocidal activities. aspartame (NutraSweet)
 Bacterial plasmids are used to
introduce foreign genes into plants.
 Food Technology
 Microorganisms are used in the
production of foods such as
acidophilus milk, bread, butter,
cocoa, coffee, cottage cheese,
cultured buttermilk, fish sauces,
green olives, kimchi (from cabbage),
meat products
 Yeasts are used in the production of
alcoholic beverages, such as ale,
beer, bourbon, brandy, cognac, rum,
rye whiskey, sake (rice wine),
Scotch whiskey, vodka, and wine
 Microbes are used in the commercial
production of amino acids (e.g.,
alanine, aspartate, cysteine,
glutamate, glycine, histidine, lysine,
methionine, phenylalanine,
tryptophan) for use in the food
industry.
 Algae and fungi are used as a
source of single-cell protein for
animal and human consumption.
 Production of chemicals. Microbes can be
used in the large-scale production of acetic
acid, acetone, butanol, citric acid, ethanol,
formic acid, glycerol, isopropanol, and lactic
acid, as well as biofuels such as hydrogen
and methane
 Biomining. Microbes have been used in the
mining of arsenic, cadmium, cobalt, copper,