THE CELL STRUCTURE

 Organelles- specialized structures who perform specific functions

 Cell Membrane (plasma membrane)- cytoplasm is enclosed by cell membrane
 Cytoplasm- living material surrounding the nucleus
Organelles and their Functions and Functions
Organelles Location Function
Nucleus Near center of the cell Contains genetic material of cell (DNA) and
nucleoli, site of RNA Synthesis and ribosomal
subunit assembly
Nucleolus Site of ribosomal RNA
Ribosomes cytoplasm Site of protein synthesis
Rough Endoplasmic cytoplasm Has many ribosomes attached; site of protein
Reticulum synthesis
Smooth Endoplasmic cytoplasm Site of lipid synthesis; participates in detoxification
Reticulum
Golgi apparatus cytoplasm Modifies protein structure and packages proteins in
secretory vesicles
Secretory vesicle cytoplasm Contains materials produced in the cell; formed by
the Golgi apparatus; secreted by exocytosis
Lysosome cytoplasm Contains enzymes that digest material taken into the
cell
Peroxisome cytoplasm Breaks down fatty acids, amino acids, hydrogen
peroxide
Mitochondrion cytoplasm Site of aerobic respiration and the major site of ATP
synthesis
Microtubule cytoplasm Supports cytoplasm; assists in cell division and
forms components of cilia and flagella
Centrioles cytoplasm Facilitate the movement of chromosomes during cell
division
Cilia Cell surface with many Move substances over surfaces of certain cells
on each cell
Flagella Sperm cell surface with Propels sperm cells
one per cell
Microvilli Extensions of cell Increase surface area of certain cells
surface with many on
each cell

FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL 1. Basic unit of life

2. Protection & support
3. Movement
4. Communication-cells produce and
receive chemical signals that allows them to
communicate with one another
5. Cell Metabolism & energy release-
chemical reactions that occur within cells
6. Inheritance-contains a copy of
genetic information of the individual
CELL MEMBRANE
 Outermost component of a cell
 Encloses the cytoplasm and forms
the boundary between material inside the
cell and material outside it
 Supports the cell contents, acts as
selective barrier that determines what moves
into and out of the cell
 Made up of phospholipids and
proteins
 Contains cholesterol, carbohydrates,
water and ions
Intracellular substances- substances inside
the cell
Extracellular substances-substances outside
the cell
Fluid-Mosaic Model- studies of the
arrangement of molecules in the cell
membrane have given rise to a model of its
structure
Phospholipids- form a double layer
molecules
Double layer of phospholipids-forms a lipid
barrier between the inside and outside of the
cell
-fluid quality, phospholipids are not
completely stationary but are able to move.
Hydrophilic (water-loving)-polar,
phosphate-containing ends of the
phospholipids and face the extracellular and
intracellular fluids of the cell
Hydrophobic (water-fearing)-nonpolar,
fatty acid ends of the phospholipids and face
away from the fluid on either side of the
membrane, toward the center of the double
layer of phospholipids
Membrane channels-carrier molecules are
involved with the movement of substances
through the cell membrane
-size, shape, charge of molecules determine
whether it can pass through each kind of
channel
Leak Channels-allow ions to pass through
Gated Channels-limit the movement of
ions across the membrane by opening and
closing
Receptor Molecules-part of an intercellular
communication system that enables cell
recognition and coordination of the activities
of the cell
MOVEMENT THROUGH THE
MEMBRANE
 Cell Membrane- selectively
permeable; allow some substances to
pass into and out of the cell
 Intracellular material has a different
composition than extracellular
material, and the cell’s survival
depends on maintaining the
difference.
 Enzymes, glycogen, potassium ions-
are found at higher concentrations
intracellularly
 Sodium, Calcium ion, Chlorine-
greater concentrations extracellularly
 Nutrients must enter cells continually
and waste products must exit.
 Movement through membrane may
be passive or active
 Passive Membrane Transport-
does not require the cell to expend
energy
-diffusion, osmosis, facilitated
diffusion
 Active Membrane Transport- does
require the cell to expend energy,
usually in the form of ATP
-active transport, secondary active
transport, endocytosis, exocytosis
DIFFUSION
 Solution- solutes and solvents
 Solutes are dissolved in a
predominant liquid or gas, which is
called the solvent.
 Solutes, such as ions or molecules,
tend to move from an area of higher
concentration of a solute to an area
of a lower concentration of that same
solute in solution.
 Natural, constant random motion of
all solutes in a solution
Example:
 Distribution of smoke throughout
a room in which there are no air
currents.
 Gradual spread of salt through a
beaker of still water
CONCENTRATION GRADIENT
 Difference in the concentration of a
solute in a solvent between two
points divided by the distance
between two points
 Steeper when the concentration
difference is large and/or the distance
is small
OSMOSIS
 Diffusion of water(solvent) across a
selectively permeable membrane,
from a region of higher water
concentration to one of lower water
concentration
 Osmotic Pressure-force required to
prevent the movement of water
across a selectively permeable
membrane
When placed into a solution:
 Hypotonic (hypo, under)- lower
concentration of solutes and a higher
concentration of water relative to the
cytoplasm of the cell. Water moves
by osmosis into the cell, causing it to
swell
Lysis-if the cell swells enough, it can
rupture
 Isotonic (iso, equal)-the
concentration of various solutes and
water are the same on both sides of
the cell membrane. The cell neither
swells or shrinked.
 Hypertonic (hyper,above)- the
solution has a higher concentration
of solutes and a lower concentration
of water relative to the cytoplasm of
the cell.
-water moves by osmosis from the
cell into the hypertonic solution,
resulting in shrinkage or crenation.
Solutions injected into the blood vessels or
into the tissues must be isotonic to the
body’s cells because swelling or shrinking
disrupts normal cell function and can lead to
cell death.
CARRIER-MEDIATED TRANSPORT
MECHANISMS
 move large, water soluble
molecules or electrically charged
ions across the cell membrane
 exhibit specificity; only specific
molecules are transported by the
carriers
 specific substance transported-
proteins involved in the carrier-
mediated transport
Carrier molecules- large molecules, non-
lipid, proteins within the cell membrane
A molecule transported binds to a specific
carrier molecule on one side of the
membrane. The binding of the molecule t
the carrier molecule in the cell membrane
causes the three dimensional shape of the
carrier molecule to change, and the
transported molecule is moved to the
opposite side of the cell membrane. The
transported molecule is then released by the
carrier molecule, which resumes its original
shape and is available to transport another
molecule.
3 KINDS OF CARRIER-MEDIATED
TRANSPORT
1. Facilitated Diffusion
 Moves substances across the cell
membrane from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower
concentration of that substance.
 Because movement is with the
concentration gradient, metabolic
energy in the form of ATP is not
required.
2. Active Transport
 Moves substances across the cell
membrane from regions of lower
concentration to those of higher
concentration against a
concentration gradient.
 Accumulate substances on one side
of the cell membrane at
concentrations many times greater
than those on the other side
 Requires energy in the form of
ATP; if ATP is not available, active
transport stops
3. SECONDARY ACTIVE
TRANSPORT
 Active transport of one substance,
such as Na+, across the cell
membrane, establishing a
concentration gradient.
 Diffusion of that transported
substance down its concentration
gradient provides the energy to
transport a second substance, such
as glucose, across the cell
membrane
 COTRANSPORT-diffusing
substance moves in the same
direction as the transported
substance
 COUNTERTRANSPORT-
diffusing substance moves in a
direction opposite of that of the
transported substance
ENDOCYTOSIS
  Vesicles- large water soluble
molecule that cannot be transported
by carrier molecules. Small pieces
of matter, even whole cells can be
transported across cell membrane in
membranous sacs
 Vesicles and cell membrane can
fuse, allowing the contents of the
vesicles to cross the cell membrane
 ENDOCYTOSIS- uptake of
material through the cell membrane
by the formation of vesicle
-the cell membrane invaginates to
form a vesicle containing the
material to be taken into the cell.
The vesicle then moves into the
cytoplasm.
Receptor- Mediated Endocytosis-the cell
membrane contains specific receptor
molecules that bind to specific substances.
When the specific substance binds to the
receptor molecule, endocytosis is triggered,
and the substance is transported into the cell.
Phagocytosis- solid particles are ingested.
-white blood cells take up and destroy
harmful substances that have entered the
body
Pinocytosis-smaller vesicles are formed,
contain liquid rather than solid particles
Secretory vesicles-accumulate materials for
release from the cell
EXOCYTOSIS-secretory vesicles move to
the cell membrane, where the vesicle
membrane fuses with the cell membrane,
and the material in the vesicle is released
from the cell.
Ex: secretion of digestive enzymes by the
pancreas and the secretion of mucus by the
salivary glands
Both Endocytosis and Exocytosis requires
energy in the form of ATP for the
formation and movement of vesicles.
ORGANELLES
Nucleus
 Nuclear Pores- which materials can
pass through into or out of the nucleus
 Chromatin-chromosomes are loosely
coiled and collectively
 Nucleoli (little nucleus)-diffuse
bodies with no surrounding membrane
that are found within the nucleus
Ribosome
 Where proteins are produced
 Free Ribosomes- not attached to any
other organelle
Rough and Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum
 Series of membranes forming sacs and
tubules that extends from the outer
nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm
 Rough ER- with ribosomes attached
to it.
-large amount of ER indicates that it is
synthesizing large amounts of protein
for export from the cell
 Smooth ER- w/o ribosomes
-In skeletal muscle cells, the smooth
ER stores calcium ions
Golgi apparatus (golgi complex)
 closely packed stacks of curved,
membrane-bound sacs
 present in large numbers and is most
highly developed in cells that secrete
protein, such as salivary glands and
pancreas
Secretory Vesicles
 pinch off from the Golgi apparatus
and move to the cell membrane
 accumulate in the cytoplasm and are
released to the exterior when the cell
receives a signal
Lysosomes
 membrane bound vesicles formed
from the Golgi apparatus
 contain variety of enzymes that
function as intracellular digestive
system
Peroxisomes
 small, membrane-bound vesicles
containing enzymes
 enzymes in peroxisomes break down
the hydrogen peroxide to water and
O2
Mitochondria
 small organelle with inner and outer
membranes separated by a space
 outer membrane-smooth contour
 inner membrane- numerous folds
called cristae which project into the
interior of the mitochondria
 mitochondrial matrix- material
within the inner membrane and
contains enzymes and mitochondrial
DNA (mtDNA)

Aerobic Respiration
 series of chemical reactions that
require oxygen to break down food
molecules to produce ATP
ATP-main energy source for chemical
reactions within the cell, and cells with a
large energy requirement have more
mitochondria than cell that require less
energy
Cytoskeleton
 skeleton of the body, internal
framework of the cell
 consists of protein structures that
support the cell, hold organelles in
place, and enable the cell to change
shape
Microtubules
 hollow structures formed from
protein subunits
 helps to support the cytoplasm of
cells, assisting in cell division,
forming essential organelles(cilia,
flagella)
Microfilaments
 small fibrils formed from protein
subunits that structurally support the
cytoplasm, determining cell shape
 some are involved with cell
movement
Intermediate filaments
 fibrils formed from protein subunits
that are smaller in diameter than
microtubules but larger in diameter
than microfilaments
 provide mechanical support to the
cell
 keratin- protein associated with skin
cells, specific type of intermediate
filament
Centrioles
 Centrosome- specialized area of
cytoplasm close to the nucleus where
microtubule formation occurs
-contains two centrioles which are
normally oriented perpendicular to
each other
 Centriole-small, cylindrical
organelle composed of microtubules
organized into nine triplets; each
triplet consist of three parallel
microtubules joined together
Cilia (sing, cilium, an eyelash)
 Project from the surface of cells
 Cylindrical structures that extend
from the cell
 Composed of microtubules,
organized in a pattern similar to that
of centrioles, which are enclosed by
the cell membrane
 Numerous on surface cells
Flagella (sing, flagellum, a whip)
 Similar structure to that of cilia but
are much longer, and usually occur
one per cell
 Sperm cells have one flagellum
Microvilli (mikros, small+villus,shaggy
hair)
 Specialized extensions of the cell
membrane that are supported by
microfilaments but they actively
move as cilia and flagella do
 Numerous on cells that have them
and they increase the surface area of
those cells
WHOLE CELL ACTIVITY
CELL METABOLISM
 Sum of all chemical reactions in the
cell
 The breakdown of food molecules
releases energy to be used to
synthesize ATP. When ATP is
broken down, energy is released that
can be used to drive other chemical
reactions or processes
Anaerobic Respiration- occurs without
oxygen and includes the conversion of
pyruvic acid to lactic. There is a net
production of 2 ATP molecules for each
glucose molecule
-it does not produce as much ATP but it
allows cells to function for short period
when oxygen levels are too low for
aerobic respiration to provide all the
needed ATP
Aerobic Respiration- occurs when
oxygen is available
-pyruvic acid molecules enter
mitochondria, and through a series of
chemical reactions, called the citric acid
cycle and the electron transport chain,
are converted to carbon dioxide acid
water
-it can produce 36-38 ATP molecules
from each glucose molecule, depending
on the cells involved
-brain and muscle cells (36 ATP), liver,
kidney, produce 38 ATP
Gene-sequence of nucleotides that provides
a chemical set of instructions for making a
specific protein.
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
 DNA contains the information that
directs protein synthesis
 The protein produced in a cell, are
structural components inside the cell.
Structural proteins secreted to the
outside of the cell
 DNA directs the production of
proteins in transcription and
translation
Transcription-cell makes a copy of the
gene necessary to make a particular protein
Messenger RNA (mRNA)- copy of the
gene produced
-travel from nucleus to the ribosomes in the
cytoplasm, where the information in the
copy is then used to construct a protein
Transfer RNAs (tRNAs)- specialized
molecules that carry the amino acids to the
ribosome
-double strands of DNA segment separate
and DNA nucleotides of the gene pair with
RNA nucleotides that form the mRNA
DNA RNA
Thymine adenine
Adenine uracil
Cytosine guanine
Guanine cytosine
-enzyme catalyzes reactions that form
chemical bonds between RNA nucleotides to
form a long mRNA segment
Codon- group of three nucleotides carries
information in mRNA
Stop codon- acts as signal to end the
translation process
Translation-synthesis of proteins based on
the information in mRNA.
-occurs at ribosomes
Requires two types of RNA
1. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
2. tRNA- one type of tRNA for each
mRNA codon
Anticodon-three nucleotide sequence that
pairs with the codon of the tRNA
Peptide bond- enzyme associated with the
ribosome between the amino acids bound to
the tRNAs
Translation ends when the ribosome reaches
the stop codon on the mRNA.
CELL DIVISION
Interphase
 dna is replicated
 two strands of DNA is separated, and
serves as a template for the
production of a new strand of DNA
 at the end of interphase, a cell has
two complete sets of genetic material
Cell Division
 formation of daughter cells from a
single parent cell
 46 chromosomes(diploid) ,23 pairs
except sex cells (2 autosomes,1 sex
cell)
Mitosis
 Genetic material within a cell is
replicated
 Divides and form two daughter cells
with the same amount and type of
DNA as the parent cell
Prophase
 Chromatin condenses to form visible
chromosomes
 Microtubules called spindle fibers
extend from the centrioles
 Nucleolus and nuclear envelope
disappear
Metaphase
 Chromosomes align near the center
of the cell
 Movement of the chromosomes is
regulated by the attached spindle
fibers
Anaphase
 Chromatids separate
 The set of chromosomes has reached
an opposite pole of the cell,
cytoplasm begins to divide
Telophase
 Chromosomes in each of the
daughter cells become organized to
form two separate nuclei, one in
newly formed daughter cell
Differentiation
 Sperm cell and oocyte unite to form
a single cell and a new individual
begins
  Cells developed with specialized
structures and functions

Apoptosis
 Cell numbers within various tissues
are adjusted and controlled
 Programmed cell death
 Regulated by specific genes

CELLULAR ASPECTS OF AGING

Cellular Clock
 Existence of cellular clock that after
a certain passage of time or a certain
number of cell divisions, results in
cell death
Death Genes
 Turn on late in life, causing cells to
die or deteriorate
DNA Damage
 Through time, cell is damaged,
resulting in cell degeneration or
death
Free Radicals
 Atoms with unpaired electron
Mitochondrial damage
 Loss of proteins critical to
mitochondrial functions
