CELL, TISSUES, CHEMISTRY

OF LIFE

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Figure 1. Fluorescence-stained Cell
Undergoing Mitosis. A lung cell from a newt,
commonly studied for its similarity to human
lung cells, is stained with fluorescent dyes. The
green stain reveals mitotic spindles, red is the
cell membrane and part of the cytoplasm, and
the structures that appear light blue are
chromosomes. This cell is in anaphase of
mitosis. (credit: “Mortadelo2005”/Wikimedia
Commons
 Structure and Composition of the Cell Membrane

• The cell membrane is an extremely pliable

structure composed primarily of back-to-back
phospholipids (a “bilayer”). Cholesterol is also
present, which contributes to the fluidity of the
membrane, and there are various proteins
embedded within the membrane that have a
variety of functions.
• A single phospholipid molecule has a phosphate
group on one end, called the “head,” and two side-
by-side chains of fatty acids that make up the lipid
tails
• The phosphate group is negatively charged,
making the head polar and hydrophilic—or “water
loving.” A hydrophilic molecule (or region of a
molecule) is one that is attracted to water. The
• The lipid tails, on the other hand, are uncharged,
or nonpolar, and are hydrophobic—or “water
fearing.” A hydrophobic molecule (or region of a
molecule) repels and is repelled by water. Some
• An amphipathic molecule is one that contains
both a hydrophilic and a hydrophobic region.
• The cell membrane consists of two adjacent
layers of phospholipids. The lipid tails of one
layer face the lipid tails of the other layer,
meeting at the interface of the two layers. The
phospholipid heads face outward, one layer
exposed to the interior of the cell and one layer
exposed to the exterior
• Intracellular fluid (ICF) is the fluid interior
of the cell.
• Extracellular fluid (ECF) is the fluid
environment outside the enclosure of the cell
membrane.
• Interstitial fluid (IF) is the term given to
extracellular fluid not contained within blood
vessels.
Membrane Proteins

• The lipid bilayer forms the basis of the cell

membrane, but it is peppered throughout with
various proteins. Two different types of proteins that
are commonly associated with the cell membrane are
the integral proteins and peripheral protein
• integral protein is a protein that is embedded in
the membrane.
• channel protein is an example of an integral
protein that selectively allows particular materials,
such as certain ions, to pass into or out of the cell.
• A receptor is a type of recognition protein that
can selectively bind a specific molecule outside
the cell, and this binding induces a chemical
reaction within the cell.
• ligand is the specific molecule that binds to and
activates a receptor.
• A glycoprotein is a protein that has
carbohydrate molecules attached, which extend
into the extracellular matrix. The
• The glycocalyx is a fuzzy-appearing coating
around the cell formed from glycoproteins and
other carbohydrates attached to the cell
membrane.
Organelles and their locations and functions
ORGANELLES LOCATION FUNCTION (S)

NUCLEUS Often near the center of the cell Contains genetic materials of cell (DNA) and nucleoli;
site of ribosome and messenger RNA synthesis

NUCLEOLUS In the nucleus Site of Ribosomal RNA synthesis and ribosomal subunit
assembly
ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC In cytoplasm Many ribosomes attached to Rough ER; site of protein
RETICULUM (ROUGH ER) synthesis
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC In cytoplasm Site of lipid synthesis detoxification
RETICULUM (SMOOTH ER)

GOLGI APPARATUS In cytoplasm Modifies protein structure and packages proteins in

secretory vesicles
SECRETORY VESICLE In cytoplasm Contains materials produced in the cell; formed by the
Golgi apparatus; secreted by exocytosis
LYSOSOME In cytoplasm Contains enzymes that digest material taken into the
cell
MITOCHONDRION In cytoplasm Site of aerobic respiration and the major site of ATP
synthesis
MICTROTUBULE In cytoplasm Supports cytoplasm; assist in cell division and forms
components of cilia and flagella
CILIA On cell surface with many on Cilia move substances over surfaces of certain cells
each cell
FLAGELLA On sperm cell surface with one Propels sperm cells
per cell
MICROVILLI Extensions of cell surface with Increase surface area of certain cells
many on each cell
FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL
• Basic unit of life
• Protection and support
• Movement
• Communication
• Cell metabolism and energy release
• inheritance
 CELL MEMBRANE
• Cell membrane or plasma – outermost
component of a cell.
• Substance outside the cell – extracellular
substances
• Substance inside the cell – intracellular
substances
• The cell membrane encloses the cell, supports the
cell contents, is a selective barrier that determines
what moves into and out of the cell, and plays a
role in communication between cells
• Phospholipids and proteins – major molecules
that make up cell membrane
FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
• Lipid bilayer – double layer of lipids with
imbedded, dispersed proteins • Bilayer consists
mainly of phospholipids and cholesterol (20%) –
Phospholipids have hydrophobic (nonpolar tails)
and hydrophilic (polar heads) bipoles –
Cholesterol gives the membrane added strength
and flexibility
DIFFUSION
• Can be viewed as the tendency for solutes, such
as ions or molecules, to move from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration of that solute in solute
Terms to know:
• SOLUTION – any mixture of liquid or gas and
consist of one or more substance
• SOLUTE – a substance that can be dissolved by
a solvent to create a solution
• SOLVENT – dissolving medium
• CONCENTRATION GRADIENT – is a measure
of the difference in the concentration of a solute
in a solvent between two points divided by the
distance between the two points.
• Lipid-soluble molecules diffuse directly through
the plasma membrane
• Most non-lipid-soluble molecules and ions do
not diffuse through the plasma membrane
• Some specific non-lipid soluble molecules and
ions pass through membrane channels or other
transport protein

CLICK THIS LINK:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
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 OSMOSIS
• The diffusion of water across a selectively
permeable membrane, such as the cell
membrane, from a region of higher water
concentration to one of lower water
concentration
• OSMOTIC PRESSURE – is the force required to
prevent the movement of water across a
selectively permeable membrane.
• HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE – moves water out
of the tube back into the distilled water
surrounding the tube.
 TYPES OF SOLUTION
HYPOTONIC SOLUTION – solution has a lower
concentration of solutes and a higher concentration of
water than the cytoplasm of the cell
LYSIS – rupture of cell
CRENATION – shrinkage of cell
ISOTONIC SOLUTION – the concentration of various
solutes and water are the same on both sides of the cell
membrane

HYPERTONIC SOLUTION – the solution usually has a

higher concentration of solutes and a lower
concentration of water than the cytoplasm of the cell
 FILTRATION
• Is the movement of fluid through a partition
containing small holes. The movement results from
the pressure or weight of the fluid pushing against the
partition.
 Mediated Transport Mechanism
• Process by which transport proteins mediate, or
assist in, the movement of ions and molecules
across the plasma membrane
Characteristics
1.Specificity: selectiveness
2.Competition: similar molecules or ions compete
for a transport protein
3.Saturation: rate of transport cannot increase
because all transport proteins are in use

https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=J5pWH1r3pgU
 TYPES OF TRANSPORT PROTEIN
• Channel proteins: form membrane channels (ion
channels)
• Carrier proteins: bind to ions or molecules and
transport them
 Uniport (facilitated diffusion) moves an ion or molecule
down its concentration gradient
 Symport moves two or more ions or molecules in the same
direction
 Antiport moves two or more ions or molecules in opposite
directions
• ATP-powered pumps: move ions or molecules against
their concentration gradient using the energy from ATP
 Secondary active transport uses the energy of one substance
moving down its concentration gradient to move another
substance across the plasma membrane
 FACILITATED DIFFUSION

• Is a carrier-mediated transport process that moves

substances into or out of cells from higher to a lower
concentration of that substance.
• ACTIVE TRANSPORT – is a carrier- mediated process
that moves substances across the cell membrane from
regions of lower concentration to those of higher
concentration against a concentration gradient.
SODIUM – POTASSIUM EXCHANGE PUMP
 PRIMARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

• Primary active transport, also called

direct active transport, directly uses metabolic
energy to transport molecules across a
membrane. Substances that are transported
across the cell membrane by primary active
transport include metal ions, such as Na+, K+,
Mg2+, and Ca2+.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-1evc75Z0G0
 SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT

• Involves the active transport of one substance, such as

an ion, across the cell membrane, establishing a
concentration gradient
• COTRANSPORT – the diffusing substance moves in
the same direction as the transported substance.
• COUNTERTRANSPORT – is movement of the
diffusing substance in the opposite direction as the
transported substance.
 ENDOCYTOSIS AND EXOCYTOSIS
• ENDOCYTOSIS – is the uptake of material through
the cell membrane by the formation of a membrane –
bound sac called VESICLE
 Phagocytosis: the movement of solid material into cells
 Pinocytosis: the uptake of small droplets of liquids and the
materials in them
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis: involves plasma
membrane receptors attaching to molecules that are then
taken into the cell
• EXOCYTOSIS – the vesicle membrane fuses with the
cell membrane, and the material in the vesicle is
eliminated from the cell.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jn4MTkqbZjg
 CYTOPLASM

• The material between the plasma membrane and

the nucleus
 Half cytosol • Consists of a fluid part (the site of
chemical reactions), the cytoskeleton, and
cytoplasmic inclusions – The cytoskeleton supports
the cell and enables cell movements » Microtubules
– provide support, aid in cell division, and are
components of organelles » Actin filaments –
support the plasma membrane and define the shape
of the cell » Intermediate filaments – provide
mechanical support to teh cell
• Half organelles
 Cytoplasmic Inclusions are aggregates of chemicals
either produced by the cell or taken in by the cell
(lipids, glycogen, hemoglobin, melanin)
• Cytoskeleton
 is a network of filaments and tubules that extends
throughout a cell, through the cytoplasm, which is all of
the material within a cell except for the nucleus. It is
found in all cells, though the proteins that it is made of
vary between organisms.
• Nucleus
 The nuclear envelope consists of two separate
membranes with nuclear pores – Encloses jellylike
nucleoplasm, which contains essential solutes
 DNA is the hereditary material of the cell and
controls the activities of the cell – Contains the
genetic library with blueprints for nearly all cellular
proteins – Dictates the kinds and amounts of
proteins to be synthesized – Between cell divisions
DNA is organized as chromatin – During cell
division chromatin condenses to form chromosomes
consisting of two chromatids connected by a
centromere
CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE
• Nucleoli: dark-staining spherical bodies within
the nucleus
 Consist of RNA and proteins – Produces ribosomal
ribonucleic acid (rRNA) – Site of ribosomal subunit
assembly
• Ribosomes: sites of protein synthesis
 Free ribosomes are not attached to any organelles •
synthesize proteins used inside the cell – Attached
ribosomes are part of a network of membranes called
the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) • produce
proteins that are secreted from the cell
• PRODUCTION OF RIBOSOMES
***https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=MiVqjxi0DfQ***
• ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
 Series of membranes forming sacs and tubules that
extend from the outer nuclear membrane into the
cytoplasm • Two varieties: rough ER and smooth ER
– Rough ER (RER) • Studded with ribosomes •
Major site of protein synthesis – Smooth ER (SER) •
Does not have ribosomes attached • Major site of
lipid and carbohydrate synthesis – Catalyzes the
following reactions in various organs of the body »
Liver: lipid and cholesterol metabolism, breakdown
of glycogen and along with the kidneys, detoxifiy
drugs » Testes: synthesis of steroid-based hormones
» Intestinal cells: absorption, synthesis, and
transport of fats » Skeletal and cardiac muscle:
storage and release of calcium
GOLGI APPARATUS
 Series of closely packed membranous sacs that
collect, package, and distribute proteins and lipids
produced by the ER
 Secretory vesicles: small, membrane-bound sacs
that transport material from the golgi apparatus to
the exterior of the cell
1. Some proteins are produced at ribosomes on the surface of the
RER and are transferred into the cisterna as they are produced
2. The proteins are surrounded by a vesicle that forms from the
membrane of the ER
3. This transport vesicle moves from the ER to the Golgi
apparatus, fuses with its membrane, and releases the proteins into
its cisterna
4. The Golgi apparatus concentrates and in some cases, modifies
the proteins into glycoproteins or lipoproteins 5. The proteins are
packaged into vesicles that form from the membrane of the Golgi
apparatus
6. Some vesicles, such as lysosomes, contain enzymes that are
used within the cell
7. Secretory vesicles carry proteins to the plasma membrane,
where the proteins are secreted from the cell by exocytosis
8. Some vesicles contain proteins that become part of the plasma
membrane
 LYSOSOMES

• Spherical membranous bags containing digestive

enzymes
 Digest ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins
 Degrade nonfunctional organelles
 Breakdown glycogen and release thyroid hormone
 Breakdown non-useful tissue
 Breakdown bone to release Ca2+
 Secretory lysosomes are found in white blood cells,
immune cells, and melanocytes

• ACTION OF LYSOSOMES
 A vesicle forms around material outside of the cell
 The vesicle is pinched off from the plasma membrane and
becomes a separate vesicle inside the cell
 A lysosome is pinched off the Golgi apparatus
 The lysosome fuses with the vesicle
 The enzymes from the lysosome mix with the material
in vesicle, and the enzymes digest the material
PEROXISOMES
▫ Membranous sacs containing oxidases and
catalases
 Breakdown fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen
peroxide
 Detoxify harmful or toxic substances
 Neutralize dangerous free radicals
MITOCHONDRIA
 The major sites of the production of ATP (the major
energy source for cells) via aerobic cellular respiration
 Have a smooth outer membrane and an inner
membrane that is infolded to produce cristae
 Contain their own DNA, can produce some of their
own proteins, and can replicate independently of the
cel
Centrioles and Spindle Fibers
 CENTRIOLES cylindrical organelles located in the
centrosome
 Pinwheel array of nine triplets of microtubules –
Centrosome: a specialized zone of the cytoplasm the site of
microtubule formation

 Spindle fibers are involved in the separation of chromosomes

during cell division
 Form the bases of cilia and flagella

 Cilia move substances over the surface of cells

 Flagella are much longer than cilia and propel sperm cells
 Microvilli increase the surface area of cell and aid in
absorption and secretion
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=Ikq9AcBcohA
 Transcription

• Synthesis of mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA based on

the nucleotide sequence in DNA

 Messenger RNA (mRNA) – carries the genetic

information from DNA in the nucleus to the
ribosomes in the cytoplasm
 Transfer RNAs (tRNAs) – bound to amino acids base
pair with the codons of mRNA at the ribosome to
begin the process of protein synthesis
 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – a structural component of
ribosomes
1. The strands of the DNA molecule separate from
each other. One DNA strand serves as a template for
mRNA synthesis
2. Nucleotides that will form mRNA pair with DNA
nucleotides according to the base-pair combinations
shown in the key at the top of the figure. Thus, the
sequence of nucleotides in the template DNA strand
(purple) determines the sequence of nucleotides in
mRNA (grey). RNA polymerase (the enzyme is not
shown) joins the nucleotides of mRNA together
3. As nucleotides are added, an mRNA molecule is
formed
Transcription: RNA Polymerase
• An enzyme that oversees the synthesis of RNA
• Unwinds the DNA template • Adds
complementary ribonucleoside triphosphates on
the DNA template
• Joins these RNA nucleotides together
• Encodes a termination signal to stop
transcription
Transcription
Posttranscriptional processing modifies mRNA
before it leaves the nucleus by removing introns
(non-coding) and then splicing exons (coding)
together with enzymes called spliceosomes
• Alternative splicing produces different combination of
exons, allowing one gene to produce more than one type
of protein
TRANSLATION
• Synthesis of proteins in response to the codons of mRNA
 Codon: a set of 3 nucleotides that codes for 1 amino acid
during translation
 Anticodon: part of tRNA and consists of three nucleotides
and is complementary to a particular codon of mRNA
• mRNA moves through the nuclear pores to ribosomes
• tRNA, which carries amino acids, interacts at the
ribosome with mRNA. The anticodons of tRNA bind to
the codons of mRNA, and the amino acids are joined to
form a protein
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=bKIpDtJdK8Q
Information Transfer from DNA to RNA
• DNA triplets are transcribed into mRNA codons
by RNA polymerase
• Codons base pair with tRNA anticodons at the
ribosomes
• Amino acids are peptide bonded at the
ribosomes to form polypeptide chains
• Start and stop codons are used in initiating and
ending translation
 Cell Division
• Cell division that occurs by mitosis produces new cells
for growth and tissue repair
• Cell division that occurs by meiosis produces gametes
(sex cells).
 Sperm cells in males
 Oocytes (egg cells) in females
• CHROMOSOMES
 Somatic cells have a diploid number of chromosomes
 Gametes have a haploid number
 In humans, the diploid number is 46 (23 pairs) and the
haploid number is 23
 Twenty-two pairs of autosomal chromosomes • One pair of
sex chromosomes – Females XX – Males XY
 DNA replicates during interphase, the time between cell
division
REPLICATION OF DNA

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TNKWgcFPHq
w

REPLICATION OF CHROMOSOME
1. The DNA of a chromosome is dispersed as
chromatin
2. The DNA molecule unwinds and each strand of
the molecule is replicated
3. During mitosis the chromatin from each
replicated DNA strand condenses to form a
chromatid. The chromatids are joined at the
centromere to form a single chromosome
4. The chromatids separate to form two new, identical
chromosomes. The chromosomes will unwind to form
chromatin in the nuclei of the two daughter cells

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nd5fVnLwg3E
 Mitosis and Cytokinesis

• Interphase is the time between cell divisions.

DNA is found as thin threads of chromatin in the
nucleus. DNA replication occurs during interphase.
Organelles, other than the nucleus, duplicate
during interphase
• In prophase, the chromatin condenses into
chromosomes. The centrioles move to the opposite
ends of the cell, and the nucleolus and the nuclear
envelope disappear. Microtubules form near the
centrioles and project in all directions. Spindle
fibers, project toward an invisible line called the
equator and overlap with fibers from opposite
centrioles.
• In metaphase, the chromosomes align in the center
of the cell in association with the spindle fibers.
Some spindle fibers are attached to kinetochores in
the centromere of each chromosome
• In anaphase, the chromatids separate, and each
chromatid is then referred to as a chromosome.
Thus, the chromosome number is double, and there
are two identical sets of chromosomes. The
chromosomes, assisted by the spindle fibers, move
toward the centrioles at each end of the cell.
Separation of the chromatids signals the beginning
of anaphase, and, by the time anaphase has ended,
the chromosomes have reached the poles
• In telophase, migration of each set of
chromosomes is complete. The chromosomes
unravel to become less distinct chromatin threads.
The nuclear envelope forms from the endoplasmic
reticulum. The nucleoli form, and cytokinesis
continues to form two cells
• Mitosis is complete, and a new interphase begins.
The chromosomes have unraveled to become
chromatin. Cell division has produced two
daughter cells, each with DNA that is identical to
the DNA of the parent cell
 Differentiation

• Process by which cells develop specialized

structures and functions
• Differentiation results from the selective
activation and inactivation of segments of DNA
in each different cell type
RESOURCES:
• Seeley’s principle of anatomy and physiology
• Wikipedia
• Schaum’s Easy Outlines
• YOUTUBE for the videos
• Openstaxx. Org
• Google search for the images uploaded.
• Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology by Seeley,
Stephens and Tate
THANK
YOU 