Physiology Chapter 2-

“The Cell and Its Functions”

Presented By:
Dr. Syed Muhammad Shabbir Ali (PT)
DPT, MSPT* (Gold Medalist)
Trainee Medical Officer (KMU)
Remote Research Assistant (University Of Shiefield,UK)
 Contents
• At the end of this lecture students should be able to:
Cell Structure
Cell Membrane
 Membrane Carbohydrates—The Cell “Glycocalyx.”
CYTOPLASM AND ITS ORGANELLES
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Ribosomes and the Rough (Granular) Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Smooth (Agranular) Endoplasmic Reticulum.
 Golgi Apparatus
 Lysosomes
 Peroxisomes
 Secretory Vesicles
 Mitochondria
• At the end of this lecture students should be able to:
• Cell Cytoskeleton—Filament and Tubular Structures
• Nucleus
• Nuclear membrane
• Comparison of the animal cell with precellular forms of life
Cell Membrane

• The cell membrane is a thin, pliable, and elastic structure that

envelops the cell.
• It is composed primarily of proteins and lipids.
• The composition of the cell membrane is approximately 55% proteins,
25% phospholipids, 13% cholesterol, 4% other lipids, and 3%
carbohydrates.
• The cell membrane plays a vital role in regulating the exchange of
substances between the cell and its environment.
• The membrane's lipids provide a barrier that impedes the movement of
water and water-soluble substances, but protein molecules penetrate
through the membrane.
Cell Membrane Lipid Barrier Impedes
Penetration by Water-Soluble Substances
• The cell membrane is a thin, pliable, elastic structure composed almost entirely of proteins
and lipids.
• The basic structure of the cell membrane is a lipid bilayer, which is a thin, double-layered film
of lipids that is continuous over the entire cell surface.
• The lipid bilayer is composed of three main types of lipids: phospholipids, sphingolipids, and
cholesterol.
• Phospholipids are the most abundant of the cell membrane lipids and have a hydrophilic
phosphate end and a hydrophobic fatty acid portion.
• The hydrophobic portions of the phospholipid molecules are repelled by water but are
mutually attracted to one another, causing them to attach to one another in the middle of the
membrane.
• The hydrophilic phosphate portions constitute the two surfaces of the complete cell
membrane, in contact with intracellular water on the inside of the membrane and
extracellular water on the outside surface.
Cell Membrane Lipid Barrier Impedes
Penetration by Water-Soluble Substances

• The lipid layer in the middle of the membrane is impermeable to the usual water-
soluble substances, such as ions, glucose, and urea, but fat-soluble substances, such
as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and alcohol, can penetrate this portion of the membrane
with ease.
• Sphingolipids, derived from the amino alcohol sphingosine, are also present in small
amounts in the cell membranes, especially nerve cells.
• Sphingolipids in cell membranes are thought to serve several functions, including
protection from harmful environmental factors, signal transmission, and as adhesion
sites for extracellular proteins.
• Cholesterol molecules in the membrane are also lipids because their steroid nuclei
are highly fat-soluble.
• The lipid barrier of the cell membrane impedes penetration by water-soluble
substances.
Integral and Peripheral Cell Membrane
Proteins

• There are two types of cell membrane proteins:

• Integral proteins that protrude all the way through the membrane
AND
• Peripheral proteins that are attached only to one surface of the
membrane and do not penetrate all the way through.
Membrane Carbohydrates—The Cell
“Glycocalyx.”
• Membrane carbohydrates occur in combination with proteins or lipids as glycoproteins or glycolipids.
• Integral proteins are mostly glycoproteins, and around one tenth of membrane lipid molecules are
glycolipids.
• Carbohydrate portions of these molecules protrude outward from the cell surface and form the
glycocalyx.
• The glycocalyx has several important functions, including giving cells an overall negative surface
charge, attaching cells to one another, acting as receptor substances for hormones, and entering into
immune reactions.
• Many of the carbohydrates in the glycocalyx have a negative electrical charge, which repels other
negatively charged objects.
• The glycocalyx of some cells attaches to the glycocalyx of other cells, thereby attaching cells to one
another.
• The carbohydrate moieties act as receptor substances for binding hormones like insulin, activating
attached internal proteins that activate a cascade of intracellular enzymes.
• Some carbohydrate moieties enter into immune reactions, as discussed in Chapter 35.
CYTOPLASM AND ITS ORGANELLES

• Cytoplasm is a gel-like substance present in all living cells.

• It is composed of two major parts: cytosol and organelles.
• Cytosol is the fluid portion of the cytoplasm in which the organelles are
suspended.
• Cytosol contains dissolved proteins, electrolytes, and glucose.
• Dispersed in the cytoplasm are neutral fat globules, glycogen granules,
ribosomes, and secretory vesicles.
• The five important organelles in the cytoplasm are the endoplasmic
reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes, and peroxisomes.
• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of membrane-bound tubes and sacs
that synthesizes and modifies proteins and lipids.
• Golgi apparatus is responsible for sorting, modifying, and packaging proteins
for transport within or outside the cell.
• Mitochondria are the powerhouse of the cell and produce ATP, the energy
currency of the cell.
• Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles that contain digestive enzymes
to break down cellular waste and foreign materials.
• Peroxisomes are membrane-bound organelles that contain enzymes involved
in various metabolic reactions, including detoxification of harmful
substances.
Endoplasmic Reticulum

• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of tubular structures and flat vesicular structures in the cytoplasm.
• ER helps process molecules made by the cell and transports them to their specific destinations inside or outside the
cell.
• The walls of ER are constructed of lipid bilayer membranes containing large amounts of proteins, similar to the cell
membrane.
• The total surface area of ER can be as much as 30 to 40 times the cell membrane area in some cells like liver cells.
• The space inside ER is filled with endoplasmic matrix, a watery medium that is different from fluid in the cytosol.
• Substances formed in some parts of the cell enter the space of ER and are then directed to other parts of the cell.
• The multiple enzyme systems attached to the membranes of ER provide the mechanisms for a major share of the
cell's metabolic functions.
• Ribosomes, composed of a mixture of RNA and proteins, are attached to the outer surfaces of many parts of ER.
• ER with ribosomes is called the rough (granular) endoplasmic
reticulum and functions to synthesize new protein molecules in
the cell.
• ER without ribosomes is called the smooth (agranular) endoplasmic
reticulum and functions for the synthesis of lipid substances and
other processes promoted by intrareticular enzymes.
Golgi Apparatus

• Golgi apparatus is closely related to the endoplasmic reticulum.

• It has membranes similar to those of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
• Composed of four or more stacked layers of thin, flat, enclosed vesicles.
• Located on the side of the cell from which secretory substances are extruded.
• Prominent in secretory cells.
• Functions in association with the endoplasmic reticulum.
• Small transport vesicles continually pinch off from the endoplasmic reticulum and fuse
with the Golgi apparatus.
• Substances entrapped in ER vesicles are transported from the endoplasmic reticulum to
the Golgi apparatus.
• Transported substances are processed in the Golgi apparatus to form lysosomes,
secretory vesicles, and other cytoplasmic components
Lysosomes

• Lysosomes are vesicular organelles that form by breaking off from the
Golgi apparatus.
• They disperse throughout the cytoplasm.
• Provide an intracellular digestive system.
• Allow the cell to digest damaged cellular structures, food particles, and
unwanted matter such as bacteria.
• Lysosomes are typically 250 to 750 nanometers in diameter.
• Surrounded by typical lipid bilayer membranes.
• Filled with large numbers of small granules, 5 to 8 nanometers in
diameter.
• Granules are protein aggregates of as many as 40 different hydrolase
enzymes.
• Hydrolytic enzymes split organic compounds into small, highly diffusible
substances.
• Hydrolytic enzymes are highly concentrated in lysosomes.
• The membrane surrounding lysosomes prevents enclosed enzymes from
coming into contact with other substances in the cell.
• Conditions of the cell can break the membranes of lysosomes, allowing
release of the digestive enzymes.
Peroxisomes

• Peroxisomes are physically similar to lysosomes.

• Formed by self-replication or possibly budding off from the smooth
endoplasmic reticulum.
• Contain oxidases rather than hydrolases.
• Oxidases combine oxygen with hydrogen ions to form hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2).
• Catalase, another oxidase enzyme present in peroxisomes, oxidizes many
substances that might be poisonous to the cell.
• Peroxisomes detoxify about half the alcohol a person drinks into
acetaldehyde in the liver.
• A major function of peroxisomes is to catabolize long-chain fatty acids.
Secretory Vesicles

• Secretion of chemical substances is an important function of many cells.

• Secretory substances are formed by the endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi apparatus
system.
• Secretory vesicles or secretory granules store these substances.
• They are released from the Golgi apparatus into the cytoplasm.
• Pancreatic acinar cells contain typical secretory vesicles that store protein
proenzymes.
• Proenzymes are enzymes that are not yet activated.
• Proenzymes are secreted later through the outer cell membrane into the pancreatic
duct and then into the duodenum.
• In the duodenum, they become activated and perform digestive functions on the
food in the intestinal tract.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria

• Mitochondria are known as the "powerhouses of the cell."

• They are necessary for extracting energy from nutrients and producing ATP.
• Mitochondria are present in all areas of the cytoplasm and vary in number per cell depending on
the cell's energy requirements.
• They are concentrated in portions of the cell responsible for the major share of its energy
metabolism.
• Mitochondria are variable in size and shape and have a basic structure composed mainly of two
lipid bilayer protein membranes, an outer membrane and an inner membrane.
• The inner membrane forms cristae, which provide a large surface area for chemical reactions to
occur.
• The inner cavity of the mitochondrion is filled with a matrix that contains large quantities of
dissolved enzymes necessary for extracting energy from nutrients.
• Mitochondria are self-replicative and contain DNA similar to that found in the cell nucleus.
• ATP is synthesized within the mitochondrion and transported out to release energy wherever it is
Cell Cytoskeleton—Filament and Tubular
Structures

• The cell cytoskeleton is a network of fibrillar proteins

• These proteins originate as precursor molecules synthesized by ribosomes in the
cytoplasm
• Precursor molecules then polymerize to form filaments or tubules
• Large numbers of actin microfilaments frequently occur in the outer zone of the
cytoplasm, called the ectoplasm
• Actin microfilaments form an elastic support for the cell membrane
• Actin and myosin filaments are organized into a special contractile machine in
muscle cells
• The actin-myosin machine is the basis for muscle contraction.
• Intermediate filaments are strong ropelike filaments
• They work together with microtubules to provide strength and support
for fragile tubulin structures
• Their average diameter is between narrower actin microfilaments and
wider myosin filaments found in muscle cells
• They are called "intermediate" because of their diameter
• Intermediate filaments' functions are mainly mechanical, providing
structural support to the cell
• They are less dynamic than actin microfilaments or microtubules,
meaning they don't undergo as much structural change over time.
• Intermediate Filaments:

• Intermediate filaments are present in all cell types but with varying protein
subunits.
• Desmin filaments are present in muscle cells, providing mechanical support for
muscle contraction.
• Neurofilaments are present in neurons, providing structural support for the axons.
• Keratins are present in epithelial cells, providing mechanical strength to the skin,
nails, and hair.
• Intermediate filaments are important in maintaining cell shape and resisting
mechanical stress.
• Microtubules:

• Microtubules are composed of tubulin proteins and are found in all cells.
• They are important in the organization and transport of cellular components.
• Microtubules form the spindle fibers during cell division, aiding in the
separation of chromosomes.
• They are involved in the movement of cilia and flagella, which are used for
cellular locomotion.
• Microtubules are also important in the formation and maintenance of the
cytoskeleton.
• Functions of Microtubules
• Microtubules form the tubular skeletal structure in the center of each cilium, radiating
from the cell cytoplasm to the tip of the cilium.
• They also form the centrioles and mitotic spindles during cell division.
• Microtubules act as a cytoskeleton, providing physical structures for certain parts of cells.
• The cytoskeleton determines cell shape, participates in cell division, and allows cells to
move.
• Microtubules provide a tracklike system that directs the movement of organelles within the
cell.
• They serve as conveyor belts for the intracellular transport of vesicles, granules, and
organelles such as mitochondria.
• Motor proteins, such as kinesin and dynein, move along the microtubules to transport cargo
to specific destinations within the cell.
Nucleus

• The nucleus is the control center of the cell, which sends messages to the cell to
grow, mature, replicate, or die.
• The nucleus contains large quantities of DNA, which comprise the genes that
determine the characteristics of the cell's proteins.
• Genes control and promote cell reproduction through mitosis, a special process
that creates two identical sets of genes.
• The appearance of the nucleus under the microscope does not provide many clues
to the mechanisms of its control activities.
• During interphase, the nucleus appears as a darkly staining chromatin material
throughout the nucleoplasm.
• During mitosis, the chromatin material organizes into highly structured
chromosomes, which can be easily identified under a light microscope.
Nuclear Membrane

• The nuclear membrane, also known as the nuclear envelope, is two

separate bilayer membranes, one inside the other.
• The outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum of the
cell cytoplasm, and the space between the two membranes is also
continuous with the space inside the endoplasmic reticulum.
• The nuclear membrane contains several thousand nuclear pores.
• Large protein complexes attach at the edges of the pores, creating a
central area of about 9 nanometers in diameter.
• Molecules up to a molecular weight of 44,000 can pass through the pores
with reasonable ease.
• The nucleus contains nucleoli, which are highly staining structures without a
limiting membrane.
• Nucleoli accumulate large amounts of RNA and proteins, similar to those found in
ribosomes.
• The nucleolus enlarges when the cell is actively synthesizing proteins.
• Specific DNA genes in the chromosomes cause RNA to be synthesized in the nucleus.
• Some of the synthesized RNA is stored in the nucleoli while most of it is transported
outward through the nuclear pores into the cytoplasm.
• In the cytoplasm, the RNA is used with specific proteins to assemble "mature"
ribosomes.
• Mature ribosomes play an essential role in forming cytoplasmic proteins.
COMPARISON OF THE ANIMAL CELL WITH
PRECELLULAR FORMS OF LIFE
COMPARISON OF THE ANIMAL CELL WITH
PRECELLULAR FORMS OF LIFE
• The cell is a complex organism that took hundreds of millions of years to develop from the earliest
forms of life
• The smallest known virus has a diameter 1000 times smaller than a nucleated cell and a volume one
billion times smaller
• The essential life-giving constituent of a virus is a nucleic acid embedded in a protein coat
• Around the virus and inside the membrane, a fluid matrix appeared, and specialized chemicals
developed to perform particular functions
• Many protein enzymes appeared that were capable of catalyzing chemical reactions, thus determining
the organism’s activities
• In later stages of life, organelles developed inside the organism to perform functions more efficiently
than dispersed chemicals throughout the fluid matrix
• In nucleated cells, complex organelles developed, including the nucleus, which distinguishes this type
of cell from all lower forms of life
• The nucleus provides a control center for all cellular activities and for the reproduction of new cells
with almost exactly the same structure as their progenitor
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