Cytoplasm

Fluid present inside the cell.

Contain clear liquid portion called cytosol
which contains proteins, carbohydrates, lipids
and electrolytes.
Cytoplasm is distributed as peripheral
ectoplasm and inner endoplasm
and the nucleus.

Organelles are two types

A) With limiting membrane namely,
1. Endoplasmic reticulum, 2. Golgi apparatus,
3.Lysosomes, 4.Peroxisome, 5.Centrosome
and centrioles,6. Secretory vesicles,7.
Mitochondria and 8.Nucleus and
B) without limiting membrane namely
1. Ribosomes, 2. Cytoskeleton
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Made up of tubules and microsomal vesicles.
They acts as the link between the organelles
and cell membrane.

Types: A) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

or Granular endoplasmic reticulum:
Granular ribosomes are attached and gives the
rough appearance. B)Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum or
Functions: 1. Help for protein synthesis in the
agranular endoplasmic reticulum:
cell. Specially those secreted from the cell such
• Without the attachment of ribosomes.
as islets of Langerhans in pancreas and
• Formed by many interconnected
antibodies in leucocytes.
tubules.so called as tubular endoplasmic
2. Degradation of worn out cytoplasmic
reticulum.
organelles like mitochondria. It wraps itself
• Functions:1.help in Synthesis of
around the worn out organelles and form a
cholesterol.
vacuole called as autophagosome
• Help in various metabolic processes of the
It is digested by lysosomal enzymes.
cell.
• Help in storage and metabolism of calcium
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum also concerned
with catabolism and detoxification of toxic
substances like some drugs and carcinogens
(cancer producing substances) in liver.
Rough and Smoothe endoplasmic
reticulum are interconnected to each
other to do the functions.

Golgi Apparatus or Glogi body or

Golgi complex:
• Present in all cells except in RBCs.
• Consist of 5 to 8 flattened
membranous sacs called cisternae.
• Situated near the nucleus
• Has got 2 ends namely cis face
positioned near the endoplasmic trans face is situated near the cell
reticulum (ER). membrane.
• The reticular vesicles from ER enter The processed substances make their
the Golgi through cis face and exit from Golgi through trans face.
Functions of Golgi Apparatus:
1.Concerned with the processing and delivery of substances like proteins and lipids to different
parts of the cell.
2. Like a post office, it packs the processed materials into the secretory granules, secretory
vesicles and lysosomes and dispatch them either out of the cell or to another part of the cell.
3. Also functions like a shipping department of the cell ,it sorts out and labels the materials for
distribution to their proper destinations.

LYSOSOMES:
• Small globular structures filled with enzymes
• Synthesized in rough endoplasmic reticulum and transported to golgi apparatus.
• In Golgi, these are processed and packed in the form of small vesicles.
• These vesicles are pinched off from Golgi apparatus and become the lysosomes.

Types: Two types

1. Primary lysosomes: are pinched off from Golgi apparatus .It is inactivate in spite of having
the hydrolytic enzymes.
2. Secondary lysosome: is active lysosome formed by the fusion of a primary lysosome with
phagosomes or endosomes.
Functions of Lysosomes:
1. Digestion of unwanted substances: with the help of hydrolytic enzymes like protease,
lipases, amylases and nucleases, lysosomes digests and removes the unwanted substances.
2. Removal of excess secretory products in the cells: Lysosomes in the secretory glands play
an important role in the removal of excess secretory products by degrading the secretory
granules.
3. Secretory function- Secretory lysosomes: They are found in some of the cells particulary in
the cells of immune system.
The conventional lysosomes are modified into secretory lysosomes by combining with secretory
granules.
Examples: a. In cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer (NK) cells, lysosomes secrete perforin
and granzymes which destroy both virus infected cells and tumor cells.
b. In melanocytes, secretory lysosomes secrete melanin.
c. In mast cells, secretory lysosomes secrete serotonin which is an inflammatory mediator.
Peroxisomes:
• Other wise called as microbodies.
• Are pinched off from endoplasmic reticulum.
• Contain some oxidatitive enzymes such as catalase,urate oxidase and D-amino acid oxidase.
Functions:
• Degenerate the toxic substances like hydrogen peroxide and other metabolic products by
means of detoxification.
• Form the major site of oxygen utilization in the cells.
• Breakdown the excess fatty acids
• Accelerate gluconeogenesis from fats
• Degrade purine to uric acid
• Participate in the formation of myelin and bile acids.
Centrosome and centrioles:
• Situated near the centre of the cell close to the nucleus
• Consists of two cylindrical structures called centrioles which are responsible for the
movement of chromosomes during cell division
Secretory vesicles:
• Are globular structures, formed in the endoplasmic reticulum. And
• Processed and packed in Golgi apparatus.
• When necessary, the secretory vesicles rupture and release the secretory substances into the
cytoplasm.
MITOCHONDRIA:
• The mitochondrian is a rod or oval shaped
structure with adiameter of 0.5 to 1 mu.
• It is covered by a double layer membrane.
• The outer membrane is smooth and
encloses with various enzymes such as
acetyl-coA synthetase and
glycerolphosphate acetyl-transferase.
• The inner membrane forms many folds called cristae and covers the inner matrix space.
• Cristae contains many enzymes and other protein molecules which are involved in respiration
and ATP synthesis.
• Because of these functions, the cristae and other protein molecules in cristae are collectively
known as respiratory chain or electron transport system.
• The mitochondria move freely in the cytoplasm of the cell and are capable of reproducing
themselves.
• The mitochondria contain their own DNA which is responsible for many enzymatic actions.
Functions:
1. Production of energy:
• The mitochondrian is called the power house of the cell because it produces the energy
required for the cellular functions.
• The energy is produced by oxidation of the food substances like proteins, carbohydrates and
lipids by the oxidative enzymes in cristae.
• During the oxidation, water and carbon dioxide are produced with release of energy.
• The released energy is stroed in mitochondria and used later for synthesis of ATP.
2. Synthesis of ATP:
• The components of respiratory chain in the mitochondrion are responsible for the synthesis
of ATP by utilizing the energy through oxidative phosphorylation.
• The ATP molecules defuse throughout the cell from mitochondrian.
• Whenever energy is needed for cellular activity, the ATP molecules are broken down.
3.Apoptosis
• Cell death.
ORGANELLES WITHOUT LIMITING MEMBRANE

1. Ribosomes:
• Small granular structures with a diameter of 15nm.
• Some ribosomes are attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum
• Others are free free ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
• They are made up of proteins(35%), RNA(65%)-called as ribosomal RNA(rRNA)
Functions of Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are called protein factories because of their role in the synthesis of proteins.
• Messenger RNA(mRNA) passes the genetic code for protein synthesis from nucleus to the
ribosomes.
• The ribosomes in turn arrange the aminoacids into small units of proteins.
• The ribosomes attached to endoplasmic reticulul involved in the synthesis of proteins like
enzymatic proteins, hormonal proteins, lysosomal proteins and the proteins of the cell
membrane.
• The free ribosomes are responsible for the synthesis of proteins in haemoglobin,
peroxisomes and mitochondria.
2. Cytoskeleton:
• The cytoskeleton of the cell is a complex network that gives shape, support and stability to
the cell.
• It is also essential to the cellular movements and the response of the cell to external stimuli.
• It consist of three major protein compounds namely
a. Microtubules, b. Intermediate filaments and c. Microfilaments
Microtubules are straight and hollow tubular structures formed by bundles of globular protein
called alpha and beta tubulin.
Functions of microtubules
• Determine the shape of the cell
• Give structural strength to the cell
• Act the conveyer belts which allow the movement of granules, vesicles,protein molecules
and some organelles like mitochondria to different parts of the cell.
• Form the spindle fibers which separate the chromosomes during mitosis
• Responsible for the movements of centrioles and the complex cellular structures like cilia.
Intermediate Filaments form a network around the nucleus and extend to the periphery of the
cell.
They are formed by fibrous proteins
Help to maintain the shape of the cell.
The adjacent cells are connected by intermediate filaments by desmosomes.
Microfilaments are long and fine thread like structure
• Made up of non tubular contractile proteins called actin and myosin.
• Actin is more abundant than myosin.
Functions:
• Give structural strength to the cell
• Provide resistance to the cell against the pulling forces.
• Responsible for cellular movements like contraction, gliding and cytokinesis (partition of
cytoplasm during cell division)

NUCLEUS
• Nucleus is present those cells which divide and produce enzymes.
•The cells with nucleus is called Eukaryotes and
•The cells without nucleus are known as Prokaryotes(Red blood cells)
•Prokaryotes do not divide or synthesise the enzymes
•Most of the cells have only one nucleus called as uninucleated.
•Few types cells have many nulei called as multinucleated(Skeletal Muscle cells)
•The nucleus is located near the center of the cell.
•It is mostly spherical in shape.
•But vary in different cells.
STRUCTURE OF NUCLEUS
•Nuclear Membrane
• The nucleus is covered by a double layered membrane called nuclear membrane.
•It encloses the fluid called nucleoplasm
•Nuclear membrane is porous and permeable in nature
•Allows nucleoplasm to communicate with the cytoplasm.
Nucleoplasm
•It is a gel like ground substance
•Contains quantities of the genetic material in the form of DNA.
•The DNA is made up of chromatin threads.
•These chromatin threads become the rod shaped chromosomes just before the cell division
Nucleoli
•One or more nucleoli sre present in each nucleus.
•Contain RNA and some proteins .
•The RNA is synthesized by chromosomes and stored in the nucleolus.
Functions of Nucleus
• Controls all the activities of the cell
• Synthesizes RNA
•Forms Subunits of ribosomes
•Sends genetic instruction to the cytoplasm for proteins synthesis through mRNA
•Controls the cell division through genes
•Stores the hereditary information(in genes) and
•Transforms this information from one generation of the species to the next.
CELL DEATH
The cell death occurs by two distinct processes:
1. Necrosis
2. Apoptosis
APOPTOSIS
•Defined as the programmed cell death under genetic control.
•Also called as cell suicide (Genes of the cell play a major role in death)
•It is a normal phenomenon and is essential for normal development of the body.
Functional Significance of Apoptosis
• To remove the unwanted cells without causing any stress or damage to the neighboring cells.
1. Plays a vital role in cellular homeostasis
2. Useful for removal of cell that is damaged by a virus or a toxin beyond repair.
3. An essential event during the development and in adult stage.
NECROSIS
• It means uncontrolled and unprogrammed death of cells due to unexpected and
accidental damage.
•Also called as Cell murder.(cells are killed by extracellular or external events)
•After necrosis, the harmful chemical substances released from the dead cells cause
damage and inflammation of neighboring tissues.
Casuses: Injury, Infection, Inflammation and cancer.
Induced by radiation, trauma,lack of blood flow and exposure to toxins.
CELL JUNCTIONS
CELL JUNCTIONS (Membrane junctions)
• The connection between the cells or the contact between
the cell and extracellular matrix is called the cell junction.
• Classification:
I) OCCLUDING JUNCTION: The junction which prevents the
movement of ions and molecules from one cell to another
cell.
a)Tight Junction:
• Formed by the tight fusion of the cell membranes from the
adjacent cells.
• The area of the fusion is very tight and forms a ridge.
• Example: Apical margin of epithelial cells in intestine
mucosa, wall of renal tubule, capillary wall and choroid
plexus.
Functions of Tight Junction:
• Hold the neighboring cells of the
tissues firmly and thus provide
strength and stability to the
tissues.
• Provides the barrier or gate
function by which the interchange
of ions, water and macromolecules
between the cells is regulated.
• Act like a fence by preventing the
lateral movement of integral
membrane proteins and lipids from
cell membrane.
• Maintain the polarity by keeping
the proteins in the apical region of
the cell membrane.
• Tight junctions in the brain
capillaries form the blood-brain
barrier (BBB) which prevents the
entrance of many harmful
substances from the blood into the
brain.
COMMUNICATING JUNCTIONS: The
junctions, which permit the movement of ions
and molecules from one cell to another cell.
a) Gap Junction or Nexus:
• Present in heart, basal part of epithelial
cells of intestinal mucosa ,etc.
• Structure:
• The membranes of the two adjacent cells
lie very close to each other and the
intercellular space becomes a narrow
channel.
• The cytoplasm of the two cells is
interconnected and the molecules move
from one cell to another through these
channels without having contact with ECF.
• The channel is surrounded by 6 subunits of
proteins which are called connexins or
connexons.
Functions of Gap Junctions:
• The diameter of the channel in the gap junction is about
1.5 to 3nm. Thus the substances having molecular weight
less than 1000 like glucose also can pass through this
junction easily.
• Helps in the exchange of chemical messengers between
the cells.
• Helps in rapid propagation of action potential from one
cell to another cell.
b) Chemical Synapse:
It is the junction between
a nerve fiber and a muscle fiber (or)
Between two nerve fibers through which the signals are
transmitted by the release of chemical transmitter
ANCHORING JUNCTIONS:
• which provide firm structural attachment between
two cells or between the cell and the extracellular
matrix.
Types of Anchoring Junctions:
1. Adherens Junctions:
• These are cell to cell junctions that is the junctions
found between the cells.
• The connctions occur through the actin filaments.
• These junctions are present in the intercalated
discs of cardiac muscles and epidermis of the skin.
2) Focal Adhesions:
• These are cell to matrix junctions that is junctions between
the cell and the extracellular matrix.
• The connection occurs through the actin filaments.
• Found in epithelia of various organs.
3) Desmosomes:
• Also called as cell to cell junction.
• Functions like tight junctions.
• Found in areas subjected for stretching such as the skin.
4) Hemidesmosome:
• It is also cell to matrix junctions and the connection is
through intermediate filaments,
• It connect the cells with their basal lamina.
 Characteristics of Life…
• Fundamental characteristics of life are traits shared by all
organisms.
1. Circulation (movement within body fluids)
2. Assimilation (changing nutrients into chemically
different forms)
3. Excretion (removal of metabolic wastes)
Taken together, these 10 characteristics constitute
• Metabolism: is the set of chemical reactions that happen
in living organisms to maintain life. Metabolism is usually
divided into two categories:
– Anabolism and
– Catabolism
MAKE BREAK
 Characteristics of Life…
– Anabolism: is that part of metabolism that involves
the synthesis of larger, more complex molecules from
small, simple reactants.

– Examples of anabolism would include the

• synthesis of glycogen from glucose,

• protein from amino acids,
• fat from glycerol and fatty acids and
• construction of new antibodies and
new enzymes.
 Characteristics of Life…
– Catabolism: is that part of metabolism that involves the
break down of large, complex molecules into smaller,
more simplified products.

– This occurs during digestion, removal of

• hydrogen (dehydrogenation),
• carboxyl groups
(decarboxylation) and
• amino groups (deamination),
• oxidation, etc.
 Requirements of Organisms
• Life depends on the availability of the following:
a. Water (60-80% of body weight, required for metabolic reactions,
for transport of substances, for temperature regulation)
b. Food (nutrients needed to supply energy and raw materials for
building new living matter, provide chemicals for energy and cell
building) and includes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins,
and minerals
c. Oxygen (Required for chemical reactions and used in releasing
energy from nutrients)
d. Heat (a byproduct of metabolism; its presence governs the
rate at which reactions occur)
e. Pressure (force required to facilitate movement of air or fluids)

• Both the quality and quantity of these factors are

important.
 Homeostasis…
• Homeostasis: Maintenance of a stable internal
environment is called as homeostasis. It is a dynamic state
of equilibrium
• Homeostasis is necessary for normal body functioning and
to sustain life
• Homeostatic imbalance is the disturbance in homeostasis
that results in disease
• Examples include:
a. Homeostatic mechanisms regulate body
temperature in a manner similar to the
functioning of a home heating thermostat.
b. Another homeostatic mechanism employs pressure-
sensitive receptors to regulate blood pressure.
 Homeostasis…
• Many of the body's homeostatic controls are negative
feedback mechanisms.
• Each individual uses homeostatic mechanisms to keep
body levels within a normal range; normal ranges can vary
from one individual to the next.
• The body communicates through neural and hormonal
control systems
• Homeostasis is regulated through control systems which
have receptors, a set point and effectors in common.
– Receptor
• Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli)
• Sends information to control center
 Input:
Control Output:
Information
center Information sent
sent along
afferent along efferent
pathway to pathway to activate

Receptor (sensor) Effector

Change
detected
by receptor

Response of
Stimulus: effector feeds
Produces back to
change influence
Variable
in variable (in homeostasis) magnitude of
stimulus and
returns variable
to homeostasis

Figure 1.4, step 5

 Homeostasis & Controls

Organism may live in

variable environment
Heat, Food, Ions, Water,
etc.
Cells live in STABLE,
narrowly REGULATED
environments.
Uncontrolled changes
disrupt ORGANIZATION
Cell death, dead organism

30
How HOMEOSTASIS is maintained?
There are 3 types of regulations:
1. Chemical (hormonal) Regulation:
a regulatory process performed by hormone or active
chemical substance in blood or tissue.
It response slowly, acts extensively and lasts for a long time.

2. Nervous regulation:
A process in which body functions are controlled by nerve
system
The pathway: nerve reflex
Characteristics: response fast; acts exactly or locally, last for a
short time
3. Autoregulation – a tissue or an organ can directly
respond to environmental changes that are
independent of nervous and hormonal control
Amplitude of the regulation is smaller than other two
types.
Extension of the effects is smaller than other two
types.
In the human body these three regulations have
coordinated and acts as one system, “feedback
control system”.
Feedback control mechanism consists of two forms:
negative and positive feedback control.
 Negative Feedback
• Negative feedback
– Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms
– Shuts off the original stimulus, or reduces its intensity
– Response is opposite of stress
– Works like a household thermostat
– The action is mainly “inhibitory action”.
– Stimulus triggers response to
counteract further change in
Deviation from
the same direction. Normal normal
condition condition
– Negative-feedback mechanisms - Increase heat

prevent small changes from

becoming too large. Return to
normal
Sweat
Vessels dilate
Negative feedback mechanism
Negative Feedback: Inhibitory.

35
 Positive Feedback
• Positive feedback

– Increases the original stimulus to push the variable

farther
– The response exaggerates the stimulus
– Enhance the action of original stimulus or amplify or
reinforce change, promote an activity to finish
– It is known as a vicious circle because it can lead to
instability or even death
– E.g. Contraction of the uterus during the birth of a baby
Positive Feedback: Stimulatory.
Stimulus trigger mechanisms that amplify the
response and reinforces the stimulus.

37
 Feed-forward control
▪ Concept: a direct effect of stimulus on the control system
before the action of feedback signal occurs.
▪Here the direct effect of the stimulus is termed disturb signal
or interfere signal.
▪Example: Shivering before diving
into the cold water
▪Significance of Feedback-forward:
▪Is to achieve adaptive feedback control.
▪makes the human body to foresee
and adapt the environment promptly
and exactly
▪(prepare the body for the change). 38
 Body Fluids

• Distribution Composition of Body Fluids

1. Organic 2. Inorganic
ECF 45% ICF 55%
ICF

• Formula to measure the Body Fluid: V=M/C

ECF volume is measured by using the substances which can
pass through the capillary membrane freely and remain only
in the ECF but not enter into the cell.
The marker substances are Radioactive sodium, Chloride,
Bromide, sulfate and thiosulfate . Nonmetabolizable
saccarides like insulin, mannitol, raffinose and sucrose.
Some marker substances like sodium, chloride, insulin and
sucrose diffuse more widely through all subcompartments of
ECF.
The measured volume of ECF by using these substances is
called sodium space, chloride space, insulin space and
sucrose space.
Sucrose space=Mass-Amount lost in urine/
Concentration of
s Sucrose in plasma
Measurement of Plasma Volume:
• The substance, which binds with plasma proteins strongly
and diffuses into interestitium only in small quantities or
does not diffuse at all, is used to measure the plasma
volume.
• It is determined by
• Volume = Amount of due injected –Amount excreted/
Average concentration of dye in plasma
Maintenance of water balance:
• Body has several mechanisms which work together to
maintain the water balance.
• The important mechanisms involve hypothalamus and
kidneys
• Applied Physiology:
• Significant decrease in water content of body is known as
dehydration
• Classification of dehydration are
• 1. Mild dehydration when fluid loss is about 5% of total
body fluids
• 2.Moderate dehydration when fluid loss is about 10%
• 3. Severe dehydration when fluid loss is about 15%.
Overhydration or water intoxication:
• The condition in which body has too much water.
Fluid Systems of the Body
• blood and lymph are two main fluid systems in
the body.
• They are responsible for transporting the agents
of the immune system.
The Blood System
• The 5 liters of blood of a 70 kg person constitute
about 7% of the body's total weight.
• The blood flows from the heart into arteries,
then to capillaries, and returns to the heart
through veins.
• Blood is composed of 52–62% liquid plasma and
38–48% cells.
• The plasma is mostly water (91.5%) and acts as a
solvent for transporting other materials (7%
protein [consisting of albumins (54%), globulins
(38%), fibrinogen (7%), and assorted other stuff
(1%)] and 1.5% other stuff).
• Blood is slightly alkaline (pH = 7.40) and a tad
heavier than water.
• All blood cells are
manufactured by stem cells,
which live mainly in the bone
marrow, via a process called
hematopoiesis.
• The stem cells produce
hemocytoblasts that
differentiate into the
precursors for all the different
types of blood cells.
• Hemocytoblasts mature into
three types of blood cells:
erythrocytes (red blood cells
or RBCs), leukocytes (white
blood cells or WBCs), and
thrombocytes (platelets).
• The leukocytes are further
subdivided into granulocytes
(containing large granules in
the cytoplasm) and
agranulocytes (without
granules).
• The granulocytes consist of
neutrophils (55–70%),
eosinophils (1–3%), and
basophils (0.5–1.0%).
• The agranulocytes are
lymphocytes (consisting of B
cells and T cells) and
monocytes.
• Lymphocytes circulate in the
blood and lymph systems, and
make their home in the
lymphoid organs.
• There are 5000–10,000
WBCs per mm3 and they Normal Adult Blood Cell Counts

live 5-9 days. About

Red Blood Cells 5.0*106/mm3
2,400,000 RBCs are
produced each second Platelets 2.5*105/mm3

and each lives for about Leukocytes 7.3*103/mm3

120 days (They migrate to Neutrophil 50-70%

the spleen to die. Once
there, that organ Lymphocyte 20-40%

scavenges usable proteins Monocyte 1-6%

from their carcasses). Eosinophil 1-3%

• A healthy male has about

Basophil <1%
5 million RBCs per mm3,
whereas females have a
bit fewer than 5 million.
• Plasma:
• Straw colored clear liquid part of blood.
• Contains 91 to 92% of water and 8 to 9% of solids (of organic and
inorganic substances).
• Serum:
• Clear straw colored fluid that oozes out from the clot.
• Serum is separated from plasma cells by centrifuging.
• Volume of serum is as same as plasma (55%).
• Serum does not have fibrinogen.
(Serum= plasma-fibrinogen)
• Functions of Blood:
• 1. Nutrient function: Substances like glucose,aminoacids,lipids and
vitamins derived from digested food are absorbed from
gastrointestinal tract and carried by blood to different parts of the
body for growth and production of energy.
• Function of Blood
• 2. Respiratory Function: Transport of respiratory gases is done by the
blood.
• Carries oxygen from alveoli of lungs to different tissues and carbon-
dioxide from tissues to alveoli.
• 3. Excretory function: Waste products formed in the tissues during
metabolic activities are removed by blood and carried to the
excretory organs like kidney, skin, liver, etc. for excretion.
• 4. Transport of Hormones and enzymes: Hormones are released
directly in to the blood.
• The blood trasports these hormones to their target organs/tissues.
• Blood transports enzymes.
• 5. Regulation of water balance: Water content ofblood is freely
interchangeable with interstitial fluid.
• This helps in the regulation of water content of the bofy.
• 6. Regulation of Acid-base Balance: The plasma proteins and
hemoglobin act as buffers and help in regulation of acid-base
balance.
• 7. Regulation of Body Temperature: Because of high specific heat of
blood, it is important to maintain the thermoregulatory mechanism
in the body to balance the heat loss and heat gain in the body.
• 8. Storage Function: Water and some important substances like
proteins, glucose, Sodium and potassium are constantly required by
the tissues.
• Tissues utilize during the conditions like stravation, fluid loss,
electrolyte loss, etc.
• 9.Defensive Function: The WBCs in the blood provide the defensive
mechanism and protect the body from the invading organisms.
• Neutrophils and monocytes engulf the bacteria by phagocytosis.
• Lymphocytes provide cellular and humoral immunity
• Eosinophils protect the body by detoxification.
• Plasma Proteins: They are
• 1. Serum albumin(7.3g/dL)
• 2.Serum Globulin(4.7g/dL)
• 3. Fibrinognen(0.3g/dL)
• Globulin is of three types, alpha-globulin, beta globulin and gamma-
globulin
• The ratio between plasma level of albumin and globulin is called
Albumin/Globulin (A/G) ratio.
• It is an important indicator of some liver and kidney diseases.
• Normal A/G ratio is 2:1.
• Variation in plasma protein level leads to
• 1. Hyperproteinemia: Elevation of all fractions of plasma proteins.
• 2. Hypoproteinemia: Decrease of all fractions of plasma proteins.
• Origin of Plasma Proteins: In embryonic stage, the plasma proteins
are synthesized by the mesenchyme cells.
• In adults, the plasma proteins are synthesized mainly from
reticuloendothelial cells of liver and also from spleen, bone marrow,
disintegrating blood cells and general tissue cells.
• Gamma globulin is synthesized from B lymphocytes.
Functions of Plasma Proteins:
1. Role in coagulation of blood: Fibrinogen is essential for the
coagulation of blood.
2. Role of defense mechanism of body: The gamma globulins play an
important role in the defense mechanism of the body by acting an
antibodies.(Immunoglobulins)
3. Role in transport Mechanism: Plasma proteins are essential for the
transport of various substances in the blood.
Albumin, alpha globulin and beta globulin are responsible for the
transport of hormones, enzymes, metals in the blood etc..
• 4. Role in maintenance of Osmotic pressure in blood:
• Plasma proteins exert the colloidal osmotic pressure and it is about
25 mm Hg.
• Since the concentration of albumin is more than the other plasma
proteins, it exerts maximum pressure.
• 5. Role in Regulation of Acid-base Balance: Albumin play an
important role in Regulation of Acid-base Balance in the blood
because og the virtue of their buffering action.
• 6. Role in Viscosity of Blood: The plasma proteins provide viscosity to
the blood, which is important to maintain the blood pressure.
• Albumen provides maximum viscosity than other plasma proteins.
• 7. Role of ESR: Globulin and fibrinogen accelerate the tendency of
Rouleaux formation is responsible for ESR, which is an important
diagnostic and prognostic tool.
• 8. Role in Suspension Stability of Red Blood Cells:
• During circulation, the RBCs remain suspended uniformly in the
blood.
• This property of the RBCs is called the Suspension Stability.
• Globulin and fibrinogen help in the suspension stability of the RBCs.
• 9. Role in Production of Trephone Substances:
• Trephone Substances are necessary for the nourishment of tissue
cells in culture.
• These substances are produced by Leucocytes from the plasma
proteins.
• 10. Role as Reserve proteins:
• During fasting, inadequate food intake or inadequate protein intake ,
the plasma proteins are utilized by the body tissues as the last source
of energy.
• The plasma proteins are called as reserve proteins.
• Red Blood Cells:
• Erythrocytes are non nucleated formed elements in the
blood.
• Consist of haemoglobin.
• Disc shaped and biconcave.
• Central portion is thinner and periphery is thicker.
• Help in equal and rapid diffusion of oxygen and other
substances into the interior of the cell.
• Large surface area is provided for absorption or removal of
different substances.
• While passing through minute capillaries, RBCs can squeeze
through the capillaries easily without getting damaged.
• Energy is produced from glycolytic process.
• Properties of Red Blood Cells
• 1. Rouleaux Formation: When blood is taken out of the
blood vessel, the RBCs pile up one above the other like a
pile of coins. This property is called Rouleaux.
• It is accelerated by plasma proteins namely globulin and
fibrinogen.
• 2. Packed cell volume(PCV) or Hematocrit value: 45% of
the blood and the plasma volume is 55%.
Lifespan of RBCs: 120 days.
• After the lifetime, the senile(old) RBCs are destroyed in
reticuloendothelial system.
• Fate of RBCs:
• When the RBCs become older(120 days), the cell membrane become
fragile.
• These cells are destroyed while trying to squeeze through the
capillaries which have lesser or equal diameter as that of RBCs.
• The destruction happens in the capillaries of spleen since they are
very narrow.
• The spleen is called graveyard of RBCs.
• The destroyed RBCs are fragmented and haemoglobin is released
from the fragmented parts.
• Haemoglobin is degraded in to iron, globin and porphyrin.
• Iron combines with the protein and called apoferritin to form ferritin
and stored in the body and reused later.
• Globin enters the protein depot for later use.
• The porphyrin is degraded in to bilirubin which is excreted by liver
through bile.
• In young healthy adult, daily 10% of senile RBCs are
destroyed .
• So 0.6g/dL haemoglobin is released in to the plasma
• From this 0.9 to 1.5mg/dL bilirubin is formed.
Functions:
• 1. Transport of oxygen from lungs to the tissues:
oxyhemoglobin.
• 2. Transport of carbon-dioxide from the tissues to the
lungs: carbhemoglobin.
• Buffering action in blood: To regulate the hydrogen ion
concentration and to maintain the acid –base balance.
• In blood group determination: RBCs carry the blood group
antigens like A antigen,B antigen and Rh factor.
• This help in determination of blood group.
• Physiological Variation:
• 1. Increase in RBC count: Polycythemia
• It occurs in both physiological (physiological polycythemia)and
pathological conditions.
• This conditions is due to
• 1. Age: At Birth RBC count is 8 to 10 million/cumm of blood
• The count decreses within 10days after birth due to destruction of
RBCs.
• May cause physiological jaundice in some newborn babies.
• In infants and growing children, the RBC count is more than in the
adults.
• 2. Sex: Before puberty and after menopause in females, the RBC
count is similar to that of male.
• During reproductive periods of females, the count is less than that of
males(4.5 million/cu mm)
• 3.High altitude: In people living in mountains, the RBC count is more
than 7 millions/cu mm.
• It is due to hypoxia(decreased oxygen supply to tissues) in high
altitude.
• Hypoxia stimulates kidney to secrete a hormone called erythropoietin
which stimulates the bone marrow to produce more RBCs .
• 4. Muscular exercise: RBC count increases after exercise.
• Due to mile hypoxia which increases the sympathetic activity and
secretion of adrenaline from adrenal medulla.
• Adrenaline contracts spleen and RBCs are released into blood.
• Hypoxia causes secretion of erythropoietin which stimulate the bone
marrow to produce more RBCs.
• 5. Emotional Conditions: RBC count increases during the emotional
conditions such as anxiety.
• This is due to sympathetic activity and contraction of spleen.
• 6. Increased environmental temperature : Increased
temperature increases all the activity in the body including the
production of RBCs.
• 7. After meals: Slight increase in the RBC count after taking meals.
• It is because of need for more oxygen for metabolic activities.
• B. Decrease in RBC Count:
• 1. High barometric Pressures: As in deep sea where the oxygen
tension of blood is higher and so the RBC count decreses.
• 2. During Sleep: Generally all the activity of the body are decreased
during sleep including the production of RBCs.
• 3. Pregnancy: RBC count decreases due to increase in ECF volume.
Tis leads to increase in plasma volume which result in hemodilution.
• Thus there is a relative reduction in the RBC count.
• Pathological Polycythemia: Abnormal increase in the RBC
count.
• They are two types.
• 1.Primary Polycythemia:
• Otherwise known as Polycythemia vera
• Characterized by persistent increase in RBC count above 14
millions/cu mm of blood.
• Thisis associated with increased WBC count about
24000/cu mm of blood.
• Polycythemia vera occurs because of red bone marrow
malignancy.
• Secondary Polycythemia: due to
• Respiratory disorders like emphysema
• Congenital heart disease
• Ayerza’s disease: condition associated with hypertrophy of right
ventricle and obstruction of blood flow to lungs.
• Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning
• Poisoning by chemicals like phosphorus and arsenic
• Repeated mild hemorrhages
• All these conditions leads to hypoxia which stimulates the release of
erythropoietin.
• Erythropoietin stimulates the bone marrow resulting in increased
RBC count.
• Anemia: The abnormal decreae in RBC count
• Variations in size of Red Blood Cells:
• Under physiological conditions, the size of the RBCs in venous blood
is slightly larger than those in arterial blood,
• In pathological conditions, the variations in size of RBCs are
• 1. Microcytes: smaller cells present in
• Iron deficiency anemia
• Prolonged forced breathing
• Increased osmotic pressure
• 2. Macrocytes: larger cells present in
• Megaloblastic anemia
• Muscular exercise
• Decreased osmotic pressure in blood
• 3, Anisocytes: are cell of different sizes found in pernicious
anemia
• Variations in shape of red blood cells:
• The shape of RBC is altered in many conditions including
different types of anemia.
• A. Crenation: Shrinkage as in hypertonic conditions
• B. Spherocytosis: Globular form as in hypotonic conditions.
• C. Elliptocytosis: Elliptical shape as in certain types of
anemia.
• D. Sickle cell: Crescentic shape as in sickle cell anemia.
• E. Poikilocytosis: Unusual shapes due to deformed cell
membrane.
• The shape will be of flask, hammer or any other unusual
shape.
• Hemolysis It is the destruction of formed elements.
• It is the process which involves the breakdown of RBC and liberation
of haemoglobin.
• Fragility is the susceptibility of RBC to hemolysis or
tendency to break easily.
• Fragility is of two types:
• 1. Osmotic fragility which occurs due to exposure to
hypotonic saline.
• Mechanical fragility which occurs due to mechanical
trauma (wound or injury).
• Abnormal hemolysis is the process by which even younger
RBCs are destroyed in large number by the presence of
haemolytic agents or hemolysins.
• Process of Hemolysis:
• Normally, plasma and RBCs are in osmotic equilibrium,
• When the osmotic equilibrium is disturbed , the cells are affected.
• For example: When the RBC are immersed in hypotonic saline , the
cells swell and rupture by bursting because of endosmosis.
• The haemoglobin is released from the ruptured RBCs.
• Conditions when hemolysis occurs:
• 1. Hemolytic jaundice
• 2. Antigen antibody reactions
• 3. Poisoning by chemicals or toxins.
• Erythropoiesis: the process of the origin and development
and maturation of erythrocytes.
• Hemopoiesis is the process of origin, development and maturation of
all the blood cells.
• Site of Erythropoiesis:
• In Fetal Life, the erythropoiesis occurs in different sites in different
periods.
• 1. Mesoblastic Stage:
• During the first 2 or 3 months (first trimester) of intrauterine life, the
RBCs are produced from mesenchymal cells of yolk sac.
• 2. Hepatic Stage:
• During the next three months (Second trimester) of intrauterine life,
RBCs are produced mainly from the liver.
• Some cells are produced from the spleen and lymphoid organs too.
• 3. Myeloid Stage:
• During the last three months(third trimester) of intrauterine life, the
RBCs are produced from red bone marrow and liver.
In New born babies, children and Adults
1. Up to the age of 20 years:
• RBCs are produced from red bone marrow of all bones.
2. After the age of 20 years:
• RBCs are produced from allthe membranous bones and ends of long
bones.
Process of Erythropoesis:
Stem Cells:
RBCs develop from the hemopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow.
These cells are called uncommitted pluripotent hemopoietic stem
cells(PHSC).
PHSC are not designed to form a particular type of blood cell.
• When the cells are designed to form a particular type of blood cell,
the uncommitted PHSCs are called committed PHSCs.
• The committed PHSCs are 2 types
• 1. Lymphoid Stem Cells(LSC) which give rise to lymphocytes and
natural killer cells(NK)
• 2. Colony forming blastocytes, which give rise to all the other blood
cells except lymphocytes.
• The different units of colony forming cells are
• 1.Colony forming unit-Erythrocytes (CFU-E) from which RBCs develop.
• 2. Colony forming unit-Granulocytes/monocytes(CFU-GM) from
which granulocytes (Neutrophils, basophils and eosinophils) and
monocytes develop.
• 2. Colony forming unit-Megakaryocytes(CFU-M) from which platelets
develop.
• Changes during Erythropoiesis
• When the cells of CFU-E pass through different stages and finally
become the matured RBCs ,
• 1. reduction in size of the cell
• 2. Disappearance of nucleoli and nucleus
• 3.Appearance of Hemoglobin
• Change in the staining properties of the cytoplasm

Stages of Erythropoiesis
• Stages between CFU-E cells and matured RBC are:
• 1.Proerythroblast---- 2. Early Normoblast------3. Intermediate
Normoblast-4. Late Normoblast-----5. Reticulocyte-----6. Matured
Erythrocyte
• Factors necessary for Erythropoiesis
• 1. General Factors:
• 1. Erythropoietin: hormone secreted mainly by peritubular capillaries
in the kidney
• It is also secreted from the liver and the brain
• Hypoxia is a stimulant for the secretion of erythropoietin.
Erythropoietin promotes the following processes:
• 1. Production of proerythroblasts from CFU-E of the bone marrow.
• 2. Development of proerythroblasts into matured RBCs through the
several stages.
• 3. Release of matured erythrocytes into blood.
• Some reticulocytes are also released along with matured RBCs.
• 2. Thyroxine:
• General metabolic hormone
• Accelerates the process of erythropoiesis at many levels.
• 3. Hemopoietic Growth factors
• They are interleukins-3,6 and 11 and stem cell factor (steel factor).
• Help to induce the proliferation of PHSCs.
• 4. Vitamins: A,B, C,D and E are essential for erythropoiesis.
• Deficiency leads to anemia.
Maturation Factors: Vitamin B12(Cyanocobalamin)
• Essntial for the synthesis of DNA, cell division and maturation in
RBCs.
• Also called as extrinsic factor because usually obtained from diet.
• Also produced in the large intestine in the presence of intrinsic
factor of Castle.
• Stored mostly in liver and muscle(small quantity)
2.Intrinsic Factor of Castle:
• It is produced in gastric mucosa by the parietal cells of the gastric
glands.
• Essential for the absorption of vitamin B12 from intestine.
3. Folic Acid: essential for the synthesis of DNA.
Deficiency of Vitamin B12 leads to macrocytic anemia.
Deficiency of intrinsic factor of castle leads to severe gastritis, ulcer and
gastrectomy.
Deficiency of Folic acid decreases the DNA synthesis leads to maturation
failure.
Leads to megaloblastic anemia.
3. Factors necessary for the hemoglobin formation in RBC are
1. First class proteins and amino acids of high biological value for the
formation of globin.
2. Iron for the formation of heme part of the hemoglobin.
• 3.Copper –for the absorption if iron from GI track
• Cobalt and nickel: for the utilization of iron during hemoglobin
synthesis.
• Vintamin V, riboglavin, nicotinic acid and pyrioxine for hemoglon
synthesis.
ESR(Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate:
• Rate at which the erythrocytes settle down.
• When the blood is in circulation, the RBCs remain suspended
uniformly and called as suspension stability of RBCs.
• If blood is mixed with an anticoagulant and allowed to stand
undisturbed on a vertical tube, the red cells settle down due to
gravity with a supernatant layer of clear plasma.
Determination of ESR
• There are teo methods to determine ESR:
• 1. Westergren’s Method and 2. Wintrobe’s method.
Normal values of ESR
• In males: 3 to 7mm in one hour
• In females: 5 to 9 mm in one hour
• In infants: 0 to 2 mm in one hour
Significance of determining ESR
• Helps in diagnosis and prognosis (monitoring the course of disease
and response of the patient to therapy.
• To determine the chronic disorder like pulmonary tuberculosis and
rheumatoid arthritis.
PCV(Packed Cell Volume): (Hematocrit value)
• The volume of the RBCs in the blood that is expressed in Percentage.
Normal value of PCV
• In males: 40 to 45%
• In females: 38 to 42%
PCV increases in leads to
1. Polycythemia and 2. Dehydration
PCV decreases in leads to
1. Anemia, 2.Cirrhosis of liver
Significance of determining PCV
• Diagnosis and treatment of anemia, polycythemia
• Determination of severity of dehydration and recovery from
dehydration after treatment.
• Decision of blood transfusion.
Platelets or thrombocytes:
• Are small, colourless, non nucleated fragments of cytoplasm
• Several shapes: rod, spherical, dumb-bell or cigar and comma shape.
when inactivated, become oval or disk shape.
Structure:
• 1.Cell membrane contains phospholipids, cholesterol and glycolipids
and carbohydrates as glycocalyx and glycoproteins and proteins.
• 2. Microtubules:
• Form a ring around cytoplam below the cell membrane
• Made up of proteins called tubulin provide structural support for the
inactive platelets to maintain the shape.
• 3. Cytoplasm:
• Contain cellular granules, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria, microtubule, microvessels,filaments and different
types of granules.
• Cytoplasm contains some chemical substances namely
• 1.Proteins:
• Contractile proteins: Actin and myosin for contraction of platelets and
thrombosthenin responsible for clot retraction.
• Von Willebrand factor for adherence of platelets
• Fibrin stabilizing factor is clotting factor
• Platelet derived growth factor(PDGF) for repair of damaged blood
vessels and wound healing
• Platelet activating factor(PAF) for aggregation of platelets during the
injury of blood vessels.
• Vintronectin (serum spreading factor) to promote adhesions of
platelets and spreading of cells in culture
• Thrombospondin to inhibit angiogenesis(formation of new blood
vessels)
• 2.Enzymes:
• 1.ATPase, 2. Enzymes necessary for synthesis of prostaglandins
• 3. Hormonal Substances
• 1. Adrenaline, 2.5-HT(serotonin) and 3.Histamine
• 4. Other chemical substances
• 1. Glycogen, 2. Substances like blood group antigens and 3. Inorganic
substances-ca, cu, M.g and iron
• 5. Platelet granules:
• 1.Alpha granules contain clotting factor V and XIII, fibrinogen and
platelet derived growth factors.
• 2.Dense granules contain nucleotides, serotonin, phospholipid,
calcium and lysosomes.
Normal Count :
2,50,000 cells
Ranges between2,00,000 and 4,00,000/cumm of blood.
• Physiological Variations:
• 1. Age: Les in infants(1,50,000 to 2,00,000/cumm) and reaches
normal level at 3rd month after birth.
• 2. Sex: No change in count for male and female.
reduced during menstruation
• 3. High altitude: count increases
• 4. After meals: After taking food, the platelet count increases.
Functions of Platelets:
• in blood clotting
• in clot retraction
• Prevention of blood loss
• In repair of ruptured blood vessel
• In defense mechanism
Development of platelets:
• Formed from Bone marrow
• The pluripotent stem cell gives rise to the CFU-M.
• This develop in to megakaryotype
• The cytoplasm of megakaryocyte form pseudopodium.
• A portion of pseudopodium is detached to form platelet, which
enters the circulation.
• Production of platelets is influenced by thrombopoietin(glycoprotein)
secreted by liver and kidneys.
Lifespan and fate of platelets:
• Average life span 10 days
• Older platelets are destroyed by tissue macrophage system in spleen.
Definitions:
1. Hemostasis: arrest or stoppage of bleeding.
2. Blood Coagulation: blood looses its fluidity and becomes a jelly like
mass few minutes after it is shed out or collected in a container.
3. Blood clot: the mesh of fibrin entangling RBCs, WBCs and Platelets.
4. Clot Retraction: In this process, the blood clot starts contracting and
after 30 to 45 minutes , the straw colored serum oozes out of the
clot.
• For this process, contractile proteins namely actin, myosin and
thrombosthenin of platelets play a major role.
5. Fibrinolysis: The lysis of blood clot inside the blood vessel is called
fibrinolysis.
• With the help of plasmin(synthesized in liver) or fibrinolysin, It helps
to remove the clot from the lumen of the blood vessel.
• Significance of clot or lysis:
• In the heart, the blood clot obstructs the minute blood vessels leads
to myocardial infarction.
• The lysis of blood clot allows reopening of blood vessels .
• 6. Anti coagulants: Substances which prevent or postpone the
coagulation of blood are called anticoagulants.
• Example: heparin, Oxalate compounds, Citrates, peptone, proteins
from venom of copperhead snake and hirudin from leech.
• 7. Bleeding time: time interval from oozing of blood after a cut or
injury till arrest of bleeding.
• Method: Duke method using blooting paper.
• Normal range: 3 to 6 minutes.
• If Prolonged: purpura.
• 8. Clotting time: the time interval from oozing of blood after a cut or
injury till the formation of clot.
• Method: Capillary tube method.
• Normal duration: 3 to 8 minutes.
• If prolonged: hemophilia.
9.Reticuloendothelial System or Macrophage system:
The system of primitive phagocytic cells which play important role in
defense mechanism of the body.
Macrophage: is a large cell derived from monocyte and has the property
of Phagocytosis.
Classification of Reticuloendothelial cells:
1. Fixed Reticuloendothelial cells or tissue macrophages:
• These cells are located in the tissues.
• Tissue macrophages are
• A. Reticuloendothelial cells in connective tissues and in serous
membranes like pleura and mesentery.
• B. Endothelial cells of blood sinusoid in bone marrow, liver, spleen,
lymph nodes, adrenal glands, pituitary glands
• C. Cells in the reticulum of spleen, lymph node and bone marrow
• D. Meningocytes of meninges and microglia I brain
• E. Alveolar cells in lungs and F. Subcutaneous tissue cells.
• 2. Wandering reticuloendothelial cells (free histiocytes)
• Two types of wandering reticuloendothelial cells
• A. Free histiocytes of blood: 1. Neutrophils and Monocytes
• B. Free histiocytes of solid tissue: help during emergency.
Functions:
• In the defense mechanism of the body.
• Phagocytic function
• Secretion of bactericidal Agents: Superoxide, Hydrogen peroxide,
Hydroxyl ions.
• Secretion of interleukins: help in immunity
• Secretion of Tumor Necrosis Factors
• Secretion of transforming growth factor
• Secretion of colony stimulationfactors
• Secretion of platelet derived growth factors
• Removal of carbon particles and Silicon
• Destruction of Senile RBC, Hemoglobin and
• Hemopoietic function(production of blood cells)
• Spleen: The spleen sits in the upper left of the abdomen, protected
by the rib cage.
• Largest lymphoid organ in the body and it is highly vascular.
• Contains reticuloendothelial cells.
• Functions of Spleen:
• 1. Formation of Blood
• 2. Destruction of blood cells
• 3. Blood reservoir function
• 4. Role in defense of body
 Our Body
Our body lives and works
through all the hard work our
organs do to keep us alive.
Whether we are walking,
talking, sleeping, playing or
sitting, our body is constantly
working hard to keeps us in full
health keeping us fit. As long
as we continue to treat our
body with care it will take care
of us. Through eating healthily
and keeping an active lifestyle,
our body will continue to work
to its full potential allowing us
to enjoy a long life.
Thank You