CELL AND ORGANELLES

Lecturer Nilsu TALAŞ

 What is cell?
• It is the smallest structural and functional unit of living things.
• There are approximately 200 different cell types.
• They are usually too small to be seen with the naked eye and are examined with a
microscope.
• Some living things are made up of a single cell, while others are made up of the many
cells.
 Structural Features of Cells

• Hereditary information is stored in DNA.

• The genetic code is usually the same.
• Information passes from DNA through proteins.
• Proteins are produced by ribosomes.
• Proteins regulate the function and structure of the cell.
• All cells are surrounded by the plasma membrane, a selectively permeable
membrane.
 Functional Properties of Cells

• Cells take in raw materials from the environment.

• They produce energy.
• They synthesize their own molecules.
• They grow in an organized way.
• They respond to stimuli from the environment.
• They proliferate.
 TYPES OF CELL

 Stem cells

 Nerve cells

 Blood cells

 Muscle cells

 Connective tissue
cells

 Bone cells

 Reproductive cells
 SHAPES OF CELL

 Oval, Round ( ex: Blood cells)

 Cuboidal (ex: Kidney tubule cells)

 Prismatic (ex: Intestinal epithelial cells)

 Squamous (ex: Endothelial cells)

 Spindle-Fusiform (ex: Smooth muscle cells)

 Polygonal (Polyhedral)(ex: Hepatocytes)

 Pear-like (ex: Purkinje cells)

 Branched (star-shaped) (ex: Nerve cells)

Blood cells (round shaped)

Eritrosit
Eritrocyte Trombosit
Trombocyte Lenfosit
Lymphocyte Monosit
Monocyte

Bazofil
Basophil Eozinofil
Eosinophil Nötrofil
Neutrophil
Cells in sublingual gland ( squamous)
Hepatocytes (liver cells): polygonal
Digestive tract epithelium cells: columnar
Smooth muscle cells: spindle-like,
fusiform
Neurons: branched shape
Purkinje cell bodies in brain: pear-like shaped
The cell consists of 3 basic parts ;

Plasma Membrane

CELL Cytoplasm

Nucleus
 PLASMA MEMBRANE

 It is the membrane that creates a selective and structural

barrier between the cell and the external environment.

 The main framework of the membrane is a bilayer lipid layer

with a thickness of 8-10 nm, which can be distinguished by
EM.

 Proteins are either buried in this layer or attached to the

cytoplasmic surface.

Molecules in plasma membrane;

 Phospholipids MODIFIED LIQUID-MOSAIC MODEL
 Proteins
 Cholesterol Since many types of molecules constantly moving and irregularly
 Oligosaccharide chains embedded in the layer, the cell membrane to be described as a
liquid-mosaic!
• The majority of the cell membrane consists of phospholipids.
• The fatty acid chains of the lipid molecule are hydrophobic (lacking affinity for water) and these chains look
at each other, causing the inner part of the membrane to become HYDROPHOBIC.
• The phosphate end of the lipid molecule is hydrophilic (affinity for water) and thus retains water, and these
polar heads cause the membrane surface to be HYDROPHILIC.

hydrophobic
fatty acid chain

hydrophilic polar end

This arrangement (hydrophilic phosphate part being on the outside) makes it possible for water, one of the
basic needs of the cell, to pass into the cell!
 Proteins in the Plasma Membrane

 Integral membrane proteins:These proteins are

embedded in the lipid bilayer or pass through the
lipid bilayer.

 Peripheral membrane proteins: These proteins

are not embedded in the lipid bilayer. They are
associated with the membrane and integral
proteins through strong ionic interactions on the
extracellular and intracellular surfaces of the
membrane.
 On the extracellular surface of the plasma
membrane, carbohydrates bind to proteins to
form glycoproteins and lipids to form glycolipids.

 These surface molecules are on the cell surface

forms a layer called glycocalyx.

 These help in cell recognition, on the membrane

surface, in metabolism, and become receptor
sites for hormones.
 Transport Across Plasma Membrane
 Carrier systems in cell membranes carry the nutrients (fuel molecules) necessary for the cell and keep
them at a certain concentration by adjusting the intracellular and extracellular concentrations of
inorganic ions such as Ca+2, K+1, Cl-1.

 In addition, the osmotic pressure inside and outside the cell is adjusted to ensure that the cell volume
remains constant.

 Transport across cell membranes is divided into two: passive and active transport.

 Passive transport does not require energy, but active transport requires energy.

Passive Transport: Active Transport:

• Diffusion • Active transport
• Facilitated diffusion • Endocytosis
• Osmosis 1. Pinocytosis
2. Phagocytosis
3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis
• Exocytosis
Diffusion
Fat-soluble, non-polar, hydrophobic, small and
uncharged molecules cross the plasma membrane
from high concentration to low concentration by
diffusion.
No energy required.
Lipid and lipid solubles, oxygen, carbon dioxide,
urea, etc.
Facilitated diffusion
 Hydrophilic and charged molecules cross the
plasma membrane (high to low concentration)
 It is protein mediated transport.
 It occurs with carrier proteins and channel Osmosis
proteins (Glucose and aa). It is the movement of water from high
 There is no morphological change in the concentration to low concentration.
membrane.
 Active Transport

 It occurs from low concentration to high concentration.

 It occurs by constantly transporting sodium out of the
cell (sodium pump).
 ATP is required.
Transport of substances across the membrane
• Diffusion: From high concentration  to low concentration

• Protein-mediated transport: By carrier proteins and channel

proteins. There is no morphological change in the membrane

• Vesicular transport: There is morphological change in the

membrane
Endocytosis (From the outside into the cell)
-Pinocytosis
-Receptor mediated endocytosis
-Phagocytosis
Exocytosis (From the cell to outside
environment)
 Endocytosis
1.Pinocytosis (drinking of cell):
• It is the vesicular transport of liquid
substances and particles smaller than
150 nm.

• Does not require clathrin, clathrin-

independent endocytosis.

• Mechanoenzymes (dynamin; GTPase)

are used to break the vesicle from the
membrane.
 Endocytosis
2.Receptor-mediated endocytosis:
• Special molecules are taken into the cell.
• It is mediated by clathrin, cargo receptors,
and the adaptin protein complex.
• GTPase, a mechanoenzyme called dynamin,
enables the vesicle to rupture.
• It is also called clathrin-dependent
endocytosis due to the important role of
clathrin in vesicle formation.
- Clathrin: The main protein that plays a role in extracellular vesicles gaining a certain shape.
 Endocytosis
3.Phagocytosis (eating of cell):
• Large and solid particles such as bacteria are taken into the cell.

• A phagosome is a vesicle that forms by invagination of the plasma membrane with its associated lipids
and proteins during phagocytosis of microbes or microbial proteins.

• The particle is killed by being enclosed in a vesicle called phagosome and then broken down by secondary
lysosome enzymes.

• Clathrin-independent and actin-dependent endocytosis

• Phagocytosis is a defense mechanism in higher structured multicellular organisms.

• In mammals, granular leukocytes and phagocytic cells called macrophages perform this task. These cells
protect the organism by circulating in the blood and tissue and phagocytosing foreign microorganisms and
damaged cells.
Endocytosis

Phagocytosis Pinocytosis Receptor-mediated

endocytosis
 Exocytosis
 The material in vesicles originating from the Golgi
complex is thrown out of the cell.

 COP I and COP II are coat proteins responsible

for directing vesicle movement inside the cell.

 As molecules progress, they undergo chemical

modifications (glycosylation, sulfation).

 The membrane added to the plasma membrane

by exocytosis is taken back to the cytoplasmic
compartment by endocytosis.
 NUCLEUS
Nucleus; is a compartment that contains the
genome (genetic information) in eukaryotic
cells.

The nucleus does not produce proteins. It

takes the proteins necessary for its activity
from the cytoplasm.

They appear as a round or elongated structure in the center of

the cell.
Parts of nucleus:
 Nuclear envelope (Nuclear membrane)
 Nucleoplasm (Karyolemma)
 Nucleolus
 Chromatin Nucleus is found in all cells except erythrocytes and platelets!
 • Double layered membrane and the space between
Nuclear them (Perinuclear distance): nuclear membrane
envelope • Contains nuclear pores
• The outer membrane is continuous with the rER

• It is the amorphous substance that surrounds the

Nucleoplasm elements contained in the nucleus.
• Contains proteins, enzymes, metabolites and ions

• Synthesis site of ribosomal RNA

• Granular and filamentous structure not limited to the
Nucleolus membrane
• There may be more than one in number

• DNA and proteins required for DNA function

Chromatin • Euchromatin (less folded part of the
chromosome) or heterochromatin
 CHROMATIN

 Chromatin is the spindle structure formed by the

DNA and structural protein complex in the
nucleus.
 It is the phosphate groups of chromatin DNA that
are responsible for the characteristic basophilia of
the nucleus.
 Chromatins shorten and lengthen to form
chromosomes.
 Chromatin proteins include histone and non-
histone proteins.
 In most cells, chromatin is not homogeneous, with densely stained chromatin clusters embedded in a
lighter staining background.

 Intensely stained material, condensed chromatin is heterochromatin, lightly stained material is

euchromatin (dispersed form).
 Heterochromatin: It appears as electron-dense and coarse granules in the electron
microscope, and as basophilic clusters in the light microscope. It is stained with
hematoxylin and basic dyes.
 Heterochromatin is visualized with fluorescent vital dyes such as the Hoeschst dyes,
propidium iodide and also Feulgen procedure.
 Heterochromatin refers to inactive chromatin, is apparent in metabolically inactive
sperm, lymphocyte and plasma cells.

 Euchromatin: appears as a fine granular structure in the electron microscope and as clear
basophilic stained areas in the light microscope.
 It is found in open spaces between and around heterochromatin within the nucleoplasm.
 It is the less folded part of the chromosome.
 Euchromatin refers to active chromatin, chromatin in an extended state and it is apparent
in neurons and liver cells.
 CYTOPLASM

• Cytoplasm is the area where all metabolic events of the cell

occur with the information coming from the nucleus.
• The cytoplasm contains a nucleus, many organelles, many
protein structures that can be in the form of fibrils and
granules, electrolytes, carbohydrates and lipids, as well as
Cytoplasm includes;
vesicles.
 Organelles
• The liquid and particle-free part of the cytoplasm is called
cytosol.  Cytoskeleton

 Inclusions
ORGANELLES
Cytoplasmic
They are small organs that provide
cellular organization within the Organelles
cytoplasm.

Organelles
Organelles with
without
membrane
membrane
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) • Centrioles
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) • Microtubules
• Golgi complex (Golgi apparatus) • Filaments
• Mitochondrions • Ribosomes
• Lysosomes
• Endosomes
• Peroxisomes
• Transport vesicles
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
• It is a membrane system organized in the form of flat
sacs or channels in the cytoplasm.
• Responsible for protein and lipid synthesis.
• Rough ER (Contains ribosomes on the outer surface of
the membrane)
• Smooth ER (Does not contain ribosomes, responsible
for carbohydrate and lipid synthesis)
• Protein synthesis of the cell occurs in rough ER and
ribosomes.
Endoplasmic Reticulum

Smooth ER Rough ER
 Endoplasmic Reticulum

Rough ER Smooth ER
 Parallel, flattened sacs and ducts Irregular system of tubules and vesicles limitted
to the membrane
 Most of the membranes are covered There are no ribosomes on the outer
with ribosomes
surface of membranes.
 Common in protein-synthesizing cells Common in lipid and steroid synthesizing
cells
 Synthesis of proteins that will be
given out of the cell (secretory Intracellular substance transport
proteins) and incorporated into the Glycogen metabolism, membrane
membrane structure
formation
 Due to the presence of RNA, cells that
synthesize protein are stained basicly; the Muscle contraction (stores Ca)
part of the cytoplasm that is stained as basic Named as sarcoplasm reticulum in skeletal
is called ergastoplasm.
and cardiac muscle
 Nissl bodies in nerve cells consist of large Abundant in adenocortical and Leydig cells
basophilic structures, rough ER and many
free ribosomes. Cell cytoplasm shows acidophilia.
 Golgi Complex (Golgi Apparatus)
 It consists of parallel, flat sacs and many vesicles and vacuoles
located around these sacs. (structure and functions similar to ER)

 It is the organelle where substances are changed, packaged and

their destination is determined.

 Golgi is responsible for classifying of post-translational

modifications of proteins and also it is responsbible for packaging.

 The cisternae located closest to the RER forms the cis face of Golgi
where substances enter from the endoplasmic reticulum,

 The cisternae located distant from the RER forms the trans face of
Golgi where substances exit in the form of smaller detached
vesicles.

 The cisternae located between the two also form the medial-Golgi
network.
 Golgi Complex
 Molecules synthesized in the ER are delivered to the Golgi via
carrier vesicles.

 Synthesized proteins are matured and packaged in the Golgi.

 Golgi synthesizes sulfated glycosaminoglycans and carbohydrate

content of the plasma membrane.

 The packaging of hydrolytic enzymes and their transformation into

the primary lysosome takes place here.
 Mitochondria
It provides the cell's respiration and energy needs
(except mature erythrocytes!)
Depending on the cell type and functional state, it
may be in different numbers and motile.
It can be oval, round, thin, long or threadlike.
They have the ability to reproduce with their own
DNA.
It has a double-layered membrane, inner and outer,
and a matrix in the middle.
Inner membrane folds are called CRYSTA.
It is present in almost all cells in humans except
erythrocytes.
It is abundant in striated muscle cells.
 Intermembrane distance
Creatine kinase, Adenyl kinase, Cytochrome C
INNER MEMBRANE OUTER MEMBRANE

 It is curvy (Crysta)  It has smooth surface

 Increases membrane surface  Permeable to water and some

ions
 It is selectively permeable
 Contains voltage dependent
 Contains cardiolipin (phospholipid) ion channels (porin)

 Contains oxidative phosphorylation  Contains phospholipase A2,

and electron transport chain enzymes monoaminooxidase, Acetyl CoA
synthase.
MATRIX

 Contains mitochondrial DNA, RNA, ribosomes

 Contains enzymes involved in lipid and protein synthesis

 Contains Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) enzymes

 Functions of Mitochondria

I.Carrying out oxidation reactions of the electron

transport chain.
II.Synthesizing ATP.
III.Regulating the transport of metabolites into and
out of the matrix.

Enzymes of the respiratory chain attach to the inner

membrane and their heads extend into the matrix.
Endosome
They are membrane-surrounded vesicles that contain material taken into
the cell.

They play a role in the breakdown of external substances by combining

with lysosomes.

There are proton pumps in their membranes.

They are intermediate steps in lysosome formation.

Early endosomes are fused vesicles originating from the cell

membrane. They are confined to a portion of the cytoplasm close
to the cell membrane.
Late endosomes arise from early endosomes, numerous vesicles
move deeper into the cytoplasm, and they mature into
lysosomes.
Lysosome
It is a organelle that is involved with various cell processes. It
breaks down excess or worn-out cell parts..

It has digestive enzymes such as (Protease, nuclease, sulfatase,

glycosidase, lipase)
They are abundant in neutrophils and macrophages.

They form the intracellular digestive system.

They eliminate extracellular foreign bodies such as bacteria.

They destroy damaged or old organelles.

 Peroxisome
They are structurally similar to lysosomes, but they have smaller vesicles.
 Peroxisomes are specialized for conducting oxidative reactions
using molecular oxygen.
Peroxisomes oxidize specific organic substances by removing hydrogen
from them.
The extracted hydrogen is transported to molecular oxygen (O2).
 As a result, the toxic byproduct hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is formed.
The cell is protected as a result of the destruction of hydrogen peroxide with
the aid of catalase enzyme found in peroxisomes.
It is abundant in the liver and kidney. Peroxisomes in the liver and kidney
degrade various toxic molecules and drugs.
 Ribosome
 Ribosome is made of both RNA and protein, and it is the
site of protein synthesis in the cell.
 Ribosomes are located in the cytoplasm and on the RER.
 The groups formed by ribosomes coming together in the
cytoplasm are called polysomes or polyribosomes.
 It consists of four types of rRNA and ~80 different
proteins.
 It contains two subunits.
 There are 3 RNAs in the large subunit and 1 in the small
subunit.
 Centrioles

 They consist of two cylinders.

 They have no membrane.
 Their walls consist of microtubules.
 They are surrounded by amorphous material.
 The primary role of centrioles is to organize cell division.
 In EM cross-section, it consists of 9 triple microtubules that
line up behind each other and form a ring.
 These are the areas where microtubules originate.
Microtubules radiating from the Centriole of a Eukaryotic Cell.
 CYTOSKELETON
 Cytoskeleton; is a supportive network formed by filaments and
tubules in protein structure.
 It is a dynamic structure that is constantly reorganized.
 It helps cells maintain their shape and internal organization.
 It also provides mechanical support that enables cells to carry out
essential functions like division and movement.

Cytoskeleton is divided into 3 groups in terms of content;

1. Microtubules
2. Intermediate filaments
3. Microfilaments (Actin filaments)
 MICROTUBULES INTERMEDIATE ACTIN FILAMENTS
FILAMENTS

Property 20-25 nm diameter, hollow, 8-10 nm in diameter, heterogeneous, 6-8 nm diameter, double helix
long cylindrical rope like view Linear view
Protein Alpha ve Beta Tubulin Various intermediate filament G-Actin
proteins Keratin, Vimentin,
subunit Neurofilaments, Lamins...
 Cell movement, shape  Cell shape  Cell shape, movement
Function  Intracellular vesicular transport  Attachment of nucleus and  Changing cell shape
 Movement of cilium and flagella organelles  Cell division
 Attachment of chromosomes to  Central parts of microvilli
the mitotic shuttle  Contractile elements of muscle
 Central part of the cilium
 MICROTUBULES INTERMEDIATE ACTIN FILAMENTS
FILAMENTS

• Central part of the cilium
Location • They exit the MTOC and spread
in cell to the periphery of cell
• Mitosis shuttle,
• Centrosome
• They provide a network for
Main organelles to move within the
Functions cell
• They enable cilia and
chromosomes to move during
cell division.
•
• Central parts of microvilli
They extend throughout the cytoplasm
terminal network
and connect desmosomes and
hemidesmosomes.
• Concentrated under the
• They are in the nucleus, just below the plasma membrane
inner nuclear membrane.
• Contractile elements of
muscle
• Contractile ring in dividing
cells
• They provide mechanical • They provide essential
strength and durability against elements for the
shear forces. contractile elements of
muscle cells (sarcomeres).
long cylindirical

linear view

rope-like view
 INCLUSIONS
 They are cytoplasmic or nuclear structures with
characteristic staining properties, consisting of metabolic
products of the cell.

 Inanimate particles are generally not surrounded by a

membrane.

 Secretory granules or pigment granules

 Neutral oil
 Lipid drops (Osmium Tetraoxide, Oil red O, Sudan black..)
 Glycogen (PAS as IM, Best Carmine)
 Carotene
 Carbon
 Iron
 Melanin
 Lipofuscin
 Lipofuscin: Brownish-yellow pigment that can be seen in HE staining.

• It occurs in neurons, skeletal and cardiac muscle cells.

• It accumulates in most eukaryotic cells over time as a result of cell aging.
• Phagocytic cells such as macrophages contain lipofuscin as a result of
accumulation of bacteria, foreign particles and dead cells.

 Hemosiderin: It is an iron-storage complex that can be seen as dark brown and is found in
the cytoplasm of many cells.
• It consists the indigestible residues of hemoglobin.
• In the light microscope, hemosiderin granules are detected using histochemical methods
for the detection of iron.
 Glycogen: Storage material for glucose.

• It is not stained in HE, but is seen with special dyes such as

toluidine blue and PAS.
• It is seen in muscle and liver.
 REFERENCES

• Histoloji Konu Anlatımı ve Atlas (Michael H. Ross- Wojciech Pawlina)

• Histoloji ve Hücre Biyolojisi (Abraham L. Kierzenbaum)
• Genel Histoloji (Prof. Dr. M. Eşrefoğlu)
• Gartner L.P., Hiatt J.L.: Color Text Book of Histology. Second ed. SAUNDERS.
• Junqueira's Temel Histoloji
• Netter Temel Histoloji