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Golgi Apparatus: Involved in synthesizing material such as proteins that are transported out of the cell
Located near the nucleus and consists of layers of membranes
Receives vesicles of immature proteins, vesicles fuse with membrane and release proteins into the Golgi
Cytoskeleton: Consists of microtubules that help shape and support the cell
Cytoplasm: General term that refers to cytosol and the organelles found within the plasma membrane
Not within the nucleus
Plasma membrane: Thin semi-permeable membrane of lipids and proteins that helps keep cytoplasm in manages
which substances located outside the cell can come in or out
Composed of a phospholipid bilayer reinforced by cholesterol and protein molecules, contain transport
holes which are proteins that help molecules and ions move in and out of the cell
Lipids and Proteins
o Glycolipids help cell to recognize other cells of the organisms
o Proteins in cell membrane help give cell its shape, communicate with external environment and
transport molecules
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): A tubular network that comprises the transport system of a cell
Fused to the nuclear membrane and extends through the cytoplasm to cell membrane
Rough ER has ribosomes bound on surface
Smooth ER no ribosomes on surface
Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell, involved in generating ATP and cell growth death
Vary in size and quantity
Contain their own DNA that is separate from that contained in the nucleus
Functions:
o Production of cell energy (ATP)
o Cell signaling
o Cellular
differentiation
o Growth
regulation
Site of aerobic
respiration
Eukaryotes vs. Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes:
Any organism that has a cell or cells that are complex
Membrane bound nucleus and organelles
o Linear DNA stored in nucleus
Reproduce via mitosis
Unicellular or multicellular
Large cells
Examples: protists, fungi, plants, and animals
Contain:
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: contain ribosomes that act as sites for protein synthesis
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: contains enzymes that process lipids or fats for cell use
Golgi Apparatus: Responsible for modifying and sorting proteins from rough ER
Prokaryotes:
Non-complex, single celled organism that does not contain a nucleus or membrane bound organelles
No nucleus, DNA not bound in membrane
o DNA is circular shaped and floats freely within the cytoplasm of cell
Most have tough polysaccharide cell wall
Internal compartments are lacking or much less complex
Reproduce via binary fission
Single cell (unicellular)
Smaller than eukaryotic cells
Examples: bacteria and archaea
Animal Cells vs Plant Cells (Eukaryotic Cells)
Plant Cells
Cell membrane surrounded by cell wall
o Is rigid and helps plant keep its form
o Has cell junction sites called plasmodesmata that connect one plant cell to another
Have chloroplasts site of photosynthesis
Generate energy via photosynthesis (6CO2 + 6H20 sunlight CH12O6 + 6O2)
o Can generate their own energy (glucose)
Larger vacuoles that store water and nutrients
Animal Cells
Smaller than plant cells
Smaller vacuoles
Desmosomes: Anchoring junction that bind adjacent cells
Lysosomes: Help break down proteins, lipids, and carbs to be transported and reused by the cell
Require glucose to generate energy in form of ATP through cellular respiration
o Glycolysis
o Krebs Cycle
o Electron Transport
o ATP Synthesis
Have centrioles to organize microtubules
Transport Across the Cell Membrane:
Passive Transport:
Movement of substances across a cell membrane without the input of energy
Net movement is moving DOWN their concentration gradients
Do NOT require ATP and are driven by the DIFFERENCE IN SOLUTE CONCENTRATION
Simple diffusion Substances can cross the membrane directly without aid of transportation protein
o Small nonpolar molecules like O2, CO2, and uncharged lipids are not repelled by hydrophobic
interior of membrane
Facilitated Diffusion: When proteins are used to transport substance DOWN their concentration
o Large, polar, or charged substances require shielding from the interior of the membrane and they
may use channel or carrier proteins to assist in their transport
Active Transport:
Energy is used to move solutes in or out of the cell
Substances are pumped AGAINST their concentration gradients from low to high concentration
Primary Transport: Pumping of solutes by a carrier protein is directly coupled to the hydrolysis of ATP
o The binding of a phosphate group causes conformational change in protein allowing it to transport
solutes across the membrane
Secondary Transport: Relies on ATP to generate an electrochemical gradient and the gradient directly
drives the active transport of a different solute
o As one solute moves down its gradient, another is pumped up its gradient
Endocytosis and exocytosis are types of active transport that employ vesicles to import/export substance
o Require ATP but do not necessarily move solutes up their concentration gradients
Exocytosis: cellular products/wastes are transported via vesicles to cell membrane where the vesicle
fuses and releases its contents into the extracellular environment
How some membrane components such as glycoproteins and glycolipids become
incorporated into cell membrane
Endocytosis: Involves the ingestion of fluid, large particles, or target molecules
During
this
process
the cell
membrane folds inward, engulfing the material and pinching off into a vesicle
Examples:
o Sodium-potassium pump
o Ca ions moving from cardiac muscles
o Glucose moving in or out of cell
1. Interphase
Longest stage where most cells spend 90% of their lifespan
Where cells take in nutrients, manufacture proteins/other substance, expands in size, and conducts its
special functions.
Begin preparations for cell division
3 Main Phases:
a) G1 Phase:
o First phase in the life of a newborn cell
o Cell grows and prepares to replicate its DNA
G0 Phase: many cells that start differentiating shortly after entering G1 exit cell cycle to enter this resting state
b) S Phase:
o DNA is copied (replicated) which requires synthesis
of new DNA
o At end of S phase replicated DNA helices remain
attached as sister chromatics held together at the
centromere
c) G2 Phase:
o Begins after the S phase and before start of division
o Checks are made to ensure that conditions are suitable
for cell division
2. Cell Division:
Mitosis
o Nuclear division involving separation of
chromosomes
Cytokinesis
o Cytoplasmic division creating 2 daughter cells
Mitosis
Process in eukaryotes that generates 2 genetically identical daughter
cells from one parent cell involving the even distribution of replicated DNA into new daughter cells
Main goal is to separate sister chromatids and distribute one of each chromosome into each of the
daughter cells
1. Prophase:
Chromosomes condense
Nuclear envelope breaks down
Cell prepares for segregation of chromosomes
2. Metaphase
Chromosomes align at midline of cell
Functions to facilitate equal distribution of chromosomes to each end of the cell
3. Anaphase
Sister chromatids separate and become individual chromosomes
New chromosomes move toward the poles of the cell
4. Telophase
Mitotic spindle breaks down and nuclear envelope forms around the 2 new sets of chromosomes at
each end of the cell
Chromosomes decondense as each new daughter cell begins G1 phase
**STILL MITOSIS***
Prophase:
Early Prophase:
o Chromatin condenses to produce highly compact chromosomes
o Centrosomes begin to move towards opposite ends of the cell
o Mitotic spindle begins to form from microtubules
Are anchored to a centrosome at the 2 ends of the cell
Late Prophase:
o Nuclear envelope disassembles and the replicated chromosomes attach to the mitotic spindle
o Spindle will guide sister chromatids to the metaphase plate and later to opposite ends of cell
Metaphase:
Mitotic spindle aligns the replicated chromosomes to
the center of the cell
Function to align chromosomes to facilitate equal
distribution of chromosomes on each end of cell
Anaphase:
Sister chromatids are separated and bulled to opposite ends of the cell
by progressive shortening of the spindle microtubules
o Results in equal separation of replicated genetic information
Once separated each chromatid is considered a new chromosome
Telophase:
Begins when a complete set of chromosomes arrive at a spindle pole
Mitotic spindle breaks down
Nuclear envelope begins to form around the 2 new sets of
chromosomes at each end of the cell
Chromosomes begin to unfold and cytokinesis begins
Cytokinesis
Process of dividing the parents cell cytoplasm to produce 2 new
daughter cells
In animal cells, actin microfilaments form at the metaphase
plate.
o As the actin filaments contract, they draw the plasma
membrane in until the original cytoplasm is pinched into
two new cells, the daughter cells.
Result
2 daughter cells both with 46 chromosomes (diploid) 2 strands
of DNA, and 2 homologous pairs
Meiosis:
Function is to generate haploid cells from a diploid
parent cell by splitting up every homologous pair and
sorting its members into different gametes
In sexual reproduction, gametes of the opposite
type (egg and sperm) fuse during fertilization to
produce a zygote.
o Each gamete is haploid (n): it contains
half the diploid set of chromosomes (2n).
Haploid = 23 chromosomes
Diploid = 46 chromosomes
The zygote formed by the two haploid gametes
contains one paternal homologue and one
maternal homologue for each pair of
homologous chromosomes.
Meiosis I:
Meiosis II
Separates sister chromatids in each cell produced by meiosis I into 2 different daughter cells
The two haploid cells produced by meiosis I give rise to a total of four haploid cells.
o The reduction in chromosome numbers achieved through meiosis I offsets the combining of
chromosomes when gametes fuse during fertilization.
Macromolecules:
Large and complex molecules produced by anabolic metabolism that play a role in cell structure and function
Anabolic Reaction: Builds large and complex molecules (macromolecules)
o Requires energy
Catabolic Reaction: Breaks down large molecules into smaller and more simple molecules
o Releases energy
Endothermic Reaction: Chemical reactions that ABSORB heat
Exothermic Reaction: Chemical reactions that RELEASE heat gain ATP
Monomer: small molecule, single compound that forms chemical bonds with other monomers to create a
polymer
Polymer: compound of large molecules formed by repeating monomers
o Carbs, proteins, and nucleic acid are groups of macromolecules that are polymers
1. Carbohydrates (polysaccharides) sugar and starches broken down into glucose, fructose, galactose
Primary source of energy as broken down into glucose and sugars grouped together into the
monosaccharides
o Oxidation of carbs that provide cells with most of their energy
o Involved in metabolic energy cycles of photosynthesis and respiration
o Stored via amylose, amylopectin, glucagon
Structural function: cellulose and chitin
Made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CH20)
2. Nucleic Acids: Long molecules made from nucleotides, store information and energy
Broken down by enzymes via hydrolysis (water broken down into hydrogen cations and hydroxide
anion) to produce strings of RNA and DNA
DNA/RNA (oligonucleotides) are broken down into smaller sugar nitrogenous units called
nucleosides
o Can be digested by cells since sugar is divided from nitrogenous base leads to
formation of the 5 types of nitrogenous bases, sugars, and substances involved in
synthesis of DNA/RNA
3. Proteins: Macromolecules made from amino acids and joined together by peptides
Peptides made from condensation reaction (loss of water when 2 molecules join)
o Compound of 2 or more amino acids
Monomer = amino acids (amino group + carboxylic acid
o Amino acid side chain determines properties of a protein
Function as transport carriers or signal transfer
Keratin and collagen (hydrophobic), found in structural protein)
Globular proteins are hydrophilic (hemoglobin, antibodies, and enzymes)
Amino Acids
Building blocks of protein, 20 types of amino acids
Involved in catabolic reaction
Monomer of protein
Enzymes:
Class of protein that catalyze biochemical reactions but are not consumed in the reaction
Highly selective, substrate must match with enzymes active site (key and lock)
Don’t start reactions that wouldn’t have already started by themselves but make the reactions happen
faster and more after
Nitrogenous base: Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), and Thymine (T)
o Adenine (A) Thymine (T)
o Cytosine (C) Guanine (G)
o The order of bases creates diversity in people
o When combined with sugar these can all become nucleosides
o Non-covalent, weak.
o RNA: Uracil replaces Thymine
Codon: A group of 3 nucleotides on the messenger RNA used to synthesize amino acids
DNA Replication:
Pairs of chromosomes are composed of DNA, when replication starts, they unwind
Occurs in nucleus of EUKARYOTES and cytoplasm of PROKARYOTES
CONTROLLED BY ENZYMES
Helicase: deforming of hydrogen bonds between bases, unwinding the strands of DNA
o Splitting starts at A-T bases as there are only 2 hydrogen bonds then C-G which has 3
o Origin of Replication = where splitting starts
o Replication Fork = portion of DNA that is unwound to be replication
o DNA Primase: Generates RNA Primer. Act as a template for starting point of DNA Replication
mRNA: carries copy of strand of DNA in nucleus to ribosomes in cytoplasm (1st STEP OF PROTEIN
BUILDING)
Transcription: process where the RNA polymerase copies DNA into RNA
o It copies the DNA onto itself base by base in complementary manner (except uracil replaces
thymine)
o DNA unwinds itself to serve as a template while RNA is being assembled
o DNA copied to RNA
Translation: Process where ribosomes use the transcribed RNA from the mRNA to put together the
needed protein
o tRNA brings amino acid to ribosomes where they link to proteins and rRNA reads the codes
TERMS TO KNOW:
DNA Polymerase: Synthesize new DNA molecules by adding nucleotides to leading and lagging DNA strands
in 5'3' direction
Topoisomerase: Prevents supercoiling
DNA Ligase: Joins DNA fragments together by forming phosphodiester bonds between nucleotides
Okazaki Fragment: Short, newly synthesized DNA fragments
Single Strand Binding Protein: Stabilize structure during replication
Leading Strand: Replicated continuously in the 3' to 5' direction
Lagging Strand: Replicated discontinuously in Okazaki fragments after initially attaching to RNA
DNA: ATCG
(Awesome, Talented,
Cool, Girl)
RNA: AUCG
(Awesome,
Unhinged, , Cool,
Girl)
Mendel’s Laws
1. Law of Segregation:
States that there are 2 alleles and half of the total number of alleles are contributed by EACH
parent organism
2. Law of Independent Assortment:
States that traits are passed on randomly and NOT influenced by other traits
Exception to this is linked traits
3. Law of Dominance:
States that when two different are present in a pair the DOMINANT one is expressed
Genotype: All genes of an individual including genes that may not be expressed such as recessive genes
Does not show parents phenotypes
Doesn’t necessarily include information about the organisms’ physical characteristics
Dominant Trait (A): Only requires one gene of a gene pair to expressed in a phenotype
Recessive Trait (a): Requires both genes to be expressed in phenotype
Biological Kingdoms:
Producer vs. Consumer + Decomposer
Producer: photosynthesizing organisms that convert light energy to chemical energy stored in sugar and
other complex molecules
o AUTOTROPHS: does NOT eat other organisms
Photoautotroph = light energy source
Chemoautotroph = inorganic chemical energy source
Consumer: Organisms that acquire their energy in chemical form by eating plants or eating animals that
ate plans
o HETEROTROPHS: do EAT other organisms
Photoheterotroph = light energy source
Chemoheterotroph = organic chemic energy source
Decomposer: A specific kind of consumer that ABSORBS nutrients from NONLIVING material such
as corpses, fallen plant material, and wastes of living organisms converts then into INORGANIC
FORM for energy
o Chemoautotroph
Hierarchy of Life:
Kingdom:
1. Archaebacteria:
Prokaryote, single celled
Includes producers, consumers, and decomposers
2. Eubacteria:
Prokaryote, single celled
Includes producers, consumers, and decomposers
3. Protista:
Eukaryote: single AND multi-celled
Includes producers, consumers, and decomposers
4. Fungi:
Eukaryote, most multi-celled but some are single celled
Includes decomposers
5. Plantae:
Eukaryote, multi-celled
Includes producers
6. Animalia:
Eukaryote, multi-celled
Includes consumers
States of Matter:
Matter Substances that have mass and occupy space (or volume)
Different states of matter are caused by differences in the distances and angles between molecules or
atoms
This results in a difference in the energy that binds them
1. Solid:
Fixed volume and shape
Density = High
Molecular Motion = Vibrate around
fixed position
o Molecules are packed tight in an
orderly pattern
Has strong bonds
2. Liquid:
Fixed volume but indefinite shape
o Volume remains constant but it
assumes shape of container
Density = High
o Lower density in solid state (ice)
Molecular Motion = Move past each
other freely
o Molecules are less ordered and less tightly packed compared to solids
Have weak bonds but not weak enough to readily break
3. Gas:
Unfixed volume and shape
o Fits volume and shape of container (high compressibility)
Density = Low
Molecular Motion = Very free motion
o Molecules are rapidly moving and spread far apart
Changes in States of Matter:
Melting: Solid Liquid
Boiling: The transition of LIQUID to GAS when a substance has acquired enough thermal energy.
Critical Point: The temperature at which LIQUID and GAS phases have same density.
Phase Diagram: A graph of physical states of a substance under varying temperature and pressure.
Triple Point: The temperature and pressure at which all 3 phases of a pure substance coexists
Solubility:
Upper limit to the mass that can be dissolved in a liter of water
Depends on TEMPERATURE and PRESSURE
Saturated Solution: Solution that contains the maximum possible concentration of a solute
Solid: increases of temperature increases solubility of solid
o Also increases solubility of a solid in water
Gas: increase in temperature decreases solubility of a gas
o Also decreases solubility of a gas in water
o increase in pressure increases solubility
pH > 7 Base
o Yields hydroxide ions (OH-) more hydroxide ions = higher the bease
pH = 7 Neutral
o Water
pH < 7 Acid
o Yield hydrogen ions (H+)
Strong vs Weak Reflection of the degree to which its atom ionizes in solution, based on reactivity
Strong Acid or Base
o Are strong because they tend to form and break bonds quickly and most of their atoms ionize in
the process
o Example: if all atoms in an acid ionize the acid is strong
Weak Acid or Base
o Example: if few atoms ionize the acid is weak
Scientific Method:
1. Identify the problem
2. Ask Questions (by conducting research)
3. Develop Hypothesis (IF/THEN statement)
4. Conduct Experiment
5. Analyze Results
6. Form a Conclusion
Independent variable
The thing you are testing
"If" statement of the hypothesis
Cause
Dependent Variable
The thing you are measuring
"Then" statement of the hypothesis
Effect
Control Variable
Scientific Constant
Remains unchanged throughout the experiment
Successful Experiment: Must be able to replicate data for a successful experiment and must have a large sample
Chemistry:
Atoms consist of a nucleus and electrons
Nucleus contains protons (+) and neutrons (no
charge)
o Nucleus is positively charged because of
the presence of protons
Electrons (-)
o Orbit the nucleus
Covalent Bond: Chemical bond formed by that SHARING of electrons between 2 non-metal elements
Non-Polar Bond:
o Electrons are shared equally between elements
Polar Bond
o Electrons are shared unequally between elements resulting in a +/- charge
Cations (+ ion): an atom LOSES an electrons
Usually metals (1A-3A)
Anions (- ion): an atom GAINS an electron
Usually nonmetals (5A-7A)
Octet Rule:
Main group elements want 8 valence electrons when forming molecules or ions
Both elements want a full valence shell, so they share electrons equally/unequally to do so
Valence Electron: outer most valence shell
Electronegativity:
Measure if how capable an atom is of attracting a pair of bonding electron
Low electronegative difference between 2 atoms polar covalent bond
No electronegative difference between 2 atoms non-polar covalent bond
High electronegative difference between 2 atoms ionic bond
Chemical Reactions
Rate
Determined by how frequently reacting atoms and molecules interact
Influences by temperature and various properties like shape of reacting materials
Catalysts: INCREASE reaction
Inhibitors: DECREASE reaction
THERE NEEDS TO BE EQUAL NUMBER OF REACTANTS AND PRODUCTS WHEN BALANCING
EQUATION