ASSIGNMENT

Research: CELLS

Second Period

1- Definition of cell and its function.

Cells are the structural, functional, and biological units of all living beings. A cell can

replicate itself independently. Hence, they are known as the building blocks of life.

Each cell contains a fluid called the cytoplasm, which is enclosed by a membrane. Also

present in the cytoplasm are several biomolecules like proteins, nucleic acids and lipids.

Moreover, cellular structures called cell organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm.

Cells provide six main functions. They provide structure and support, facilitate growth

through mitosis, allow passive and active transport, produce energy, create metabolic

reactions and aid in reproduction.

2- Number the main parts of a cell and their functions.

A cell consists of three main parts: the cell membrane, the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

1. Cell membrane: separates the material outside the cell, extracellular, from the material

inside the cell, intracellular. It maintains the integrity of a cell and controls passage of

materials into and out of the cell. All materials within a cell must have access to the

cell membrane (the cell's boundary) for the needed exchange.

 2. Nucleus: stores the cell's hereditary material, or DNA, and it coordinates the cell's

activities, which include growth, intermediary metabolism, protein synthesis, and

reproduction (cell division). Only the cells of advanced organisms, known as

eukaryotes, have a nucleus

3. Cytoplasm: functions to support and suspend organelles and cellular molecules. Many

cellular processes also occur in the cytoplasm, such as protein synthesis, the first stage

of cellular respiration (known as glycolysis), mitosis, and meiosis.

3- Identify the structure of a cell (all the components)

Cell Membrane, Nucleus, Cytoplasm, Nuclear Membrane, Nucleoplasm, Nucleolus,

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER,) Ribosomes, Golgi Body (Apparatus,) Vacuoles, Mitochondria,

Plastids, Chloroplast, Cell Wall.

4- Define the function of each component.

1. Cell Membrane: semipermeable, controls what goes into & out of the cell.

2. Nucleus: controls cell activities, involved with reproduction & protein synthesis.

3. Cytoplasm: fluid of the cell, allows organelles to float & move in the cell.

4. Nuclear Membrane: controls what goes into & out of the nucleus.

5. Nucleoplasm: fluid in the nucleus.

6. Nucleolus: makes RNA important for protein synthesis.

7. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER:) allows materials to move through the cell quickly

(Smooth & Granular)

8. Ribosomes: site of protein synthesis (On the granular ER or in the cytoplasm)

9. Golgi Body (Apparatus:) packages materials for the cell.

10. Vacuoles: fluid filled sacs, store wastes or food, larger in plant cells.

11. Mitochondria: powerhouse of the cell, site of respiration, where energy is released

(more in animal cells).

12. Plastids: contain pigments, food making, food storage.

13. Chloroplast: contains the pigment chlorophyll, site of photosynthesis where food is

made.

14. Cell Wall: protects and supports the cell (only in plant cells)

5- Describe the processes that transport materials in and out of a cell.

1. Passive Process: Movement of substances down a concentration gradient until

equilibrium is reached. Does not require cellular energy in the form of ATP.

2. Diffusion: Movement of molecules or ions down a concentration gradient due

to their kinetic energy until they reach equilibrium.

3. Simple diffusion: Passive movement of a substance down it's concentration

gradient, through the bi-lipid layer of the plasma membrane. Without the help

of membrane transport proteins. (non-polar hydrophobic solutes)

4. Facilitated Diffusion: Passive movement of a substance down it's

concentration gradient through the bi-lipid layer by trans-membrane proteins

that function as carriers or channels. (Polar or charged solutes)

5. Osmosis: Passive movement of water molecules across a selectively

permeable membrane from an area of high concentration to low concentration.

6. Active Processes: Movement of substances against a concentration gradient;

requires cellular energy in the form of ATP.

7. Active Transport: Active process in which a cell expends energy to move a

substance across the plasma membrane, against it's concentration gradient, by

trans-membrane proteins that function as carriers. (polar or charged solutions)

8. Primary Active Transport: Active process in which a cell expends energy to

move a substance against it's concentration gradient by using pumps (carriers)

that use energy supplied by the hydrolysis of ATP. (Na+,K+,Cl- and other

ions)

9. Secondary Active Transport: Coupled active transport of two substances

across the membrane using energy supplied by a Na+ or H+ concentration

gradient maintained by primary active transport pumps. (Antiport: Ca2+, H+

out of cells. Symport: glucose, amino acids into cells)

 10. Transport in Vesicles: Active process in which substances move into or out of

cells in vesicles that bud from the plasma membrane, requires ATP energy.

11. Endocytosis: Movement of substances into a cell in a vesicle.

12. Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis: Ligand-Receptor complexes trigger infolding

of a clathrin-coated pit that forms a vesicle that holds Ligands.

13. Phagocytosis: "Cell eating" movement of a solid particle into a cell.

14. Endocytosis: "Cell Drinking" Movement of extracellular fluid into a cell by

infolding of plasma membrane to form a vesicle.

15. Exocytosis: Movement of substances out of a cell in a vesicle.

16. Transcytosis: Movement of a substance through a cell as a result of

endocytosis on entry and exocytosis on exit.

6- Describe the process of cell division.

There are two types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.

Mitosis is a fundamental process for life. During mitosis, a cell duplicates all of its

contents, including its chromosomes, and splits to form two identical daughter cells.

Because this process is so critical, the steps of mitosis are carefully controlled by a
number of genes. When mitosis is not regulated correctly, health problems such as

cancer can result.

The other type of cell division, meiosis, ensures that humans have the same number of

chromosomes in each generation. It is a two-step process that reduces the

chromosome number by half—from 46 to 23—to form sperm and egg cells. When the

sperm and egg cells unite at conception, each contributes 23 chromosomes so the

resulting embryo will have the usual 46. Meiosis also allows genetic variation through

a process of DNA shuffling while the cells are dividing.

7- Describe the 5 phases of mitosis.

Prophase: The first stage of mitosis, in which the chromatin condenses into discrete

chromosomes visible with a light microscope, the mitotic spindle begins to form, and

the nucleolus disappears but the nucleus remains intact.

Promethaphase: The second stage of mitosis, in which the nuclear envelope fragments

and the spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of the chromosomes.

Metaphase: The third stage of mitosis, in which the spindle is complete and the

chromosomes, attached to microtubules at their kinetochores, are all aligned at the

metaphase plate.

Anaphase: The fourth stage of mitosis, in which the chromatids of each chromosome

have separated and the daughter chromosomes are moving to the poles of the cell.
Telophase: The fifth and final stage of mitosis, in which daughter nuclei are forming

and cytokinesis has typically begun.