Prepared by: Jay-ann O.

Balibalita

CHAPTER 3:The Cellular Level of Organization

1. Explain how the structure of a cell contribute to its function.

ANSWER:
 Cells, in turn, determine the form and functions of the human body. From cellular function, we can progress to the study
of tissues. In addition, many diseases and other human disorders have a cellular basis. The human body is composed of
trillions of cells and acts as a host to countless other organisms. Because the body is made of many, many cells, we must
first understand the anatomy and physiology of the human body. The cell is the basic living unit of all organisms. The
simplest organisms consist of single cells, whereas humans are composed of multiple cells.

2. List the six main function of a cell.

ANSWER:
The four main function of a cell.
 Cell metabolism and energy use.
The chemical reactions that occur within cells are collectively called cell metabolism. Energy released during metabolism
is used for cell activities.
 Synthesis of molecules.
Cells synthesize various types of molecules, including proteins, nucleus acids, and lipids. The different cells of the body do
not all produce the same molecules. Therefore, the structure and functional characteristics of cells are determined by the
types of molecules they produce.
 Communication.
Cells produce an receive chemical and electrical signals that allow them to communicate with one another.
 Reproduction and inheritance.
Each cell contains a copy of the genetic information of the individual. Specialized cells transmit that genetic information
to the next generation.

3. Describe the structure of the cell membrane.

ANSWER:
 The cell membrane or plasma, is the outermost component of a cell. The cell membrane encloses the cytoplasm and
forms the boundary between material inside the cell and material outside it. Substances outside the cell are called
extracellular substances, and those inside the cell are called intracellular substances. Beside enclosing the cell, the cell
membrane supports the cell contents, acts as selective barrier that determines what moves into and out of the cell, and
plays the role in communication between cells.

4. List four ways by which substance cross the cell membrane.

ANSWER:

 Diffusion- is the movement of a solute from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration within a
solvent. At equilibrium, the distribution of molecules is uniform.
 Osmosis- is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
 Carrier- Mediated Transport Mechanism- is the movement of a substance across a membrane by means of a carrier
molecule. The substance transported tend to be large, water-soluble molecules or ions.
 Endocytosis and Exocytosis- is the movement of materials into cells by the formation of a vesicle. Receptor- mediated
endocytosis involves cell receptors attaching molecules, which are then transported into the cell.

5. Explain the role of osmosis and that of osmotic pressure in controlling the movement of water across the cell membrane. Compare
hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic solution.
ANSWER:
 Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane, such as the cell membrane, from a region of
higher water concentration to one of lower water concentration. Osmosis is important to cells because large volume
changes caused by water movement can disrupt normal cell functions. Osmotic pressure is the force required to prevent
the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane. Water molecules move by osmosis through the
membrane into the tube, forcing the solution to move up the tube. The greater the concentration of a solution, the
greater its osmotic pressure, and the greater the tendency for water to move into the solution.
 A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of a solutes and a higher concentration of water relative to cytoplasm of
the cell. Isotonic solution is the concentrations of various solutes of the water are the same on both sides of the cell
membrane. Hypertonic solution, has a higher concentration of solutes and a lower concentration of water relative to
cytoplasm of the cell.
6. Define mediated transport, and compare the process of facilitated diffusion, active transport and secondary active transport.
ANSWER:
 Carrier molecules, which are proteins within the cell membrane are involved in carrier-mediated transport mechanism,
which move large, water soluble molecules across the cell membrane. A molecule to transport binds to a specific carrier
molecule on one side of the membrane.
 Facilitated diffusion is a carrier mediated transport process that moves substances across the cell membrane from an
area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration of that substance. Active transport is a carrier mediated
process that moves substances across the cell membrane from regions of lower concentration to higher concentration
against a concentration gradient. Secondary active transport involves the active transport of one substance, such as Na+,
across the cell membrane, establishing the concentration gradient. The diffusion of that transported substance down its
concentration gradient provides the energy to transport a second substance, such as glucose, across the cell membrane.

7. Describe endocytosis and exocytosis.

ANSWER:
Endocytosis is the uptake of material through the cell membrane by the formation of a vesicle. Endocytosis usually
exhibits specificity. The cell membrane contains specific receptor molecules that binds to the receptor molecules that
bind to specific substances.
Exocytosis is the secretory vesicles move to the cell membrane, where the vesicle membrane fuses with the cell
membrane, and the material in the vesicles is released from the cells.

8. Describe the structure and function of the nucleus and nucleoli.

ANSWER:
The nucleus is a large organelle usually located near the center of the cell.
All cells of the body have a nucleus at some point in their life cycle, although some cells, such as red blood cells, loose
their nuclei as they mature. The nuclei of human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes, which consist of DNA and
proteins. During most of a cell’s life, the chromosomes are loosely coiled and collectively called chromatin. The genes
that influence the structural and functional features of every individual are portions of DNA molecules. These sections of
DNA molecules determine the proteins.
Nucleoli are diffuse bodies with no surrounding membrane that are found within the nucleus. There are usually one to
several nucleoli within the nucleus. Proteins produced in the cytoplasm more through the nuclear pores into the nucleus
and the nucleolus. These proteins are joined to ribosomal ribonucleic produced within the nucleolus, to form large and
small ribosomal subunits.
9. Compare the structure and function of rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
ANSWER:
 The endoplasmic reticulum is a series of membranes forming sacs and tubules the extends from the outer nuclear
membrane onto the cytoplasm. Rough ER is ER with ribosomes attached to it. A large amount of rough ER in a cell
indicates that it is synthesizing large amounts of protein for export from the cell. Smooth ER is a site for lipid synthesis
and participates in detoxification of chemical within cells. In skeletal muscle cells, the smooth ER stores calcium ions.

10. Describe the roles of the Golgi apparatus and secretory vesicles in secretion.
ANSWER:
 Golgi Apparatus collects, modifies, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids manufactured by ER. For example,
proteins produced at the ribosomes enter the Golgi apparatus from the ER.
In some cases, the Golgi apparatus chemically modifies the proteins by attaching carbohydrates or lipid molecules to them. The
proteins then are packaged into membrane sacs that pinch off from the margins of the Golgi apparatus.
 Secretory vesicles pinch off from the Golgi apparatus and move to cell membrane. The membrane of a secretory vesicle
then fuses with the cell membrane, and the contents of vesicles release to the exterior of the cell. In many cells, secretory
vesicle accumulates in the cytoplasm and are released to the exterior when the cell receives a signal. Secretory vesicles
containing hormones remain in the cytoplasm of endocrine cells until signals stimulate their release.
11. Explain the role of lysosomes and peroxisomes in digesting material taken into cells by phagocytosis.
ANSWER:
 Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles formed from the Golgi apparatus. They contain a variety of enzymes that
function as intracellular digestive system. Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with lysosomes.
 Peroxisomes are small, membrane- bound vesicles containing enzymes that break fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen
peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid and amino acid breakdown and can be toxic to a cell.

12. Describe the structure and function of mitochondria.

ANSWER:
 Mitochondria are small organelles with inner and outer membrane separated by a space. The outer membranes have a
smooth contour, but the inner membranes have numerous folds, called create, which project into the interior of the
 mitochondria. Mitochondria are the major sites of adenosine triphosphate production within cells. Mitochondria carry
out aerobic respiration. A series of chemical reactions that require O2 to breakdown food molecules to produce ATP. ATP
is the main energy source for most chemical reactions within the cell, and cells with a large energy requirement have
more mitochondria than cells that require less energy.

13. Describe the structure and function of centriole.

ANSWER:
 Centriole is a specialized area of cytoplasm close to the nucleus where microtubule formations occurs. It contains two
centrioles, which are normally oriented perpendicular to each other. Each centriole is a small, cylindrical organelle
composed of microtubules organized into nine triplets; each triplet consists of three parallel microtubules joined
together.

14. Compare the structure and function of cilia, flagella, and microvilli.
ANSWER:
Cilia project from the surface of cells. They vary in number from none to thousands per cell and are capable of moving.
Cilia are composed of microtubules, organized in a pattern similar to that of centrioles, which are enclosed by the cell
membrane. Their coordinated movement transports mucus, in which dust particles are embedded, upward and away
from the lungs.
Flagella have a structure similar to that of cilia but are much longer, and they usually occur only one per cell. Sperm cell
each have one flagellum, which propels the sperm cell.
Microvilli are specialized extensions of the cell membrane that are supported by microfilaments, but they do not actively
move as cilia and flagella do. Microvilli are numerous on cell that have them and they increase the surface area of those
cells.

15. Describe the process of protein synthesis.

ANSWER:
 DNA contains the information that directs protein synthesis. This process is called gene expression. The proteins in a cell
include those that serve as structural components inside the cell, proteins secreted to the outside of the cell, and
enzymes that regulate chemical reactions in the cell. DNA influences the structural and functional characteristics of the
entire organism because it directs protein synthesis. Gene expression involves two steps- transcription ad translation.
This process can be illustrated with an analogy. Suppose a chef wants a cake recipe that is found only in a cookbook in the
library. Because the books cannot be checked out, the chef makes a copy or transcription, of the recipe. Later in the
kitchen, the information contained in the copy recipe is used to make the cake. The changing of one form to another is
called translation.

16. Explain what is accomplished during mitosis.

ANSWER:
 Most cells of body, except those that give rise to sex cells, divide mitosis. During mitosis, a parent cell divides to form two
daughter cells with the same amount and type of DNA as the parent cell. Because DNA determines the structure and
functions of cells, the daughter cells, which have the same DNA as the parent cell, can have the same structure and
perform same function as the parent cell.
 Mitosis is divided into four stages; prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Prophase- during prophase the
chromatin condenses to form visible chromosomes. After interphase, each chromosome is made up of two genetically
identical strands of chromatin, called chromatids which are linked at one point by a specialized region called the
centromere. In Metaphase the chromosomes align near the center of the cell. The movement of the chromosomes is
regulated by the attached spindle fibers.
 At the beginning of Anaphase, the chromatids separate. When this happens, each chromatid is then called a
chromosome. At this point, two identical sets of 46 chromosomes are present in the cell. Each of the two sets of 46
chromosomes is moved by the spindle fibers toward the centriole at one of the poles of the cell. During telophase, the
chromosomes in each of the daughter cells become organized to form two separates nuclei, one in each newly formed
daughter cell. The chromosomes begin to unravel and resemble the genetic material during interphase.

17. Define differentiation and explain how different cells types develop.
ANSWER:
 Differentiation is the process by which cells develop with specialized structures and functions. During differentiation of a
cell, some portion of DNA are active, but others are inactive. The active and inactive sections of DNA differ with each cell
type. For example, the portion of DNA responsible for the structure and function of a bone cell is different from that
responsible for the structure and function of a muscle cell. Differentiation, then, results from the selective activation and
inactivation of segments of DNA.
  Apoptosis or programmed cell death is a normal process by which cell numbers within various tissues are adjusted and
controlled. In the developing fetus, apoptosis removes extra tissue, such as cells between the developing fingers and
toes. In some adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates excess cells, to maintain a constant number of cells within the tissue.

18. List the major theories of aging.

ANSWER:
 The outward signs of aging, such as wrinkled skin, gray hair, and reduced vision. The major hypotheses that attempts to
explain how aging occurs concentrate on molecules within the cell, such as lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
 Cellular clock- one of hypothesis of aging suggest the existence of a cellular clock that, after a certain passage of time or a
certain number of cell division, result in the date of a given cell line.
 Death genes- another hypothesis suggest that there are “death genes,” which turn on late in life, or sometimes
prematurely, causing cells to deteriorate and die.
 DNA damage- other hypothesis suggest that, through time, DNA is damage, resulting in cell degeneration and death.
 Free radicals- DNA is also susceptible to direct damage, resulting in mutations that may result in cellular dysfunction and,
ultimately cell death. One of the major sources of DNA damage apparently free radicals, which are atoms or molecules
with an unpaired electron.
 Mitochondrial damage- mitochondrial DNA maybe more sensitive to free radical damage than is nuclear DNA.
Mitochondrial DNA damage may result in loss the mitochondria are the primary source of ATP, loss of mitochondrial
function could lead to the loss of energy critical to cell function and, ultimately to cell death.