Cell Theory

In 1665, Robert Hooke published Micrographia, a

book filled with drawings and descriptions of the
organisms he viewed under the recently
invented microscope.

The invention of the microscope led to the discovery

of the cell by Hooke. While looking at cork, Hooke
observed box-shaped structures, which he called
“cells” as they reminded him of the cells, or rooms, in
monasteries.
This discovery led to the development of
the classical cell theory.
The classical cell theory was proposed by Theodor
Schwann in 1839. There are three parts to this theory.
1. All organisms are made of cells.
2. All cells are the basic units of life. These parts were
based on a conclusion made by Schwann and
Matthias Schleiden in 1838, after comparing their
observations of plant and animal cells.
3. Cells come from preexisting cells that have
multiplied, was described by Rudolf Virchow in 1858,
when he stated omnis cellula e cellula (all cells
come from cells).
Since the formation of classical cell theory,
technology has improved, allowing for more detailed
observations that have led to new discoveries about
cells.
These findings led to the formation of the modern
cell theory, which has three main additions:
1. DNA is passed between cells during cell division;
2. The cells of all organisms within a similar species
are mostly the same, both structurally and
chemically; and
3. Energy flow occurs within cells.
Prokaryotic and
Eukaryotic Cells
Organisms whose cells have a nucleus are called
eukaryotes (from the Greek word eu, meaning truly,
and karyon, a kernel or nucleus.) Organisms whose
cells do not have nucleus are called prokaryotes
(from pro, meaning before).

Prokaryotes are typically spherical, rodlike or

corkscrew-shaped. They are so small-generally just a
few micrometers long although there are some giant
species as much as 100 times longer than this.
Prokaryotes often have tough protective coat or cell
wall, surrounding the plasma membrane, which
encloses a single compartment containing
cytoplasm and DNA.

Some of prokaryotic cells, like plant cells, perform

photosynthesis, using energy from sunlight to
produce organic molecules from CO2.
Prokaryotes are divided into two domains.
1. Bacteria
2. Archaea
They are found in environments that are too hostile for
most other cells, hot acids of volcanic springs, the airless
depths of marine sediments, the sludge of sewage
treatment plants, pools beneath the frozen surface of
Antarctica, and in the acidic , oxygen-free environment of
a cow’s stomach where they break down cellulose and
generate methane gas.
Cell Organelles
Endomembrane system is a series of interacting
organelles between the nucleus and the plasma
membrane. Its main function is to make lipids,
enzymes and proteins for insertion into the cell’s
membranes or secretion to the external
environment.
The endomembrane system includes the nuclear envelope,
lysosomes, vesicles, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus,
as well as the plasma membrane. The function of these organelles
are coordinated.
Endoplasmic reticulum clear tubular system of
tunnels throughout the cell that transport materials
like proteins.

Mutations in the proteins involved in regulating ER

structure and movement are implicated in many
diseases including neurodegenerative diseases
such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and amyotrophic
lateral sclerosis (ALS).
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum - modifies proteins
and synthesizes phospholipids used in cell
membranes. It assumes a crucial part in protein
folding.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum - synthesizes

carbohydrates, lipids, and steroid hormones;
engages in detoxification of medications and
poisons; and stores calcium ions.
A continual exchange of materials takes place
between the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi
apparatus, the lysosomes, and the outside of the cell.
The exchange is mediated by transport vesicles that
pinch off from the membrane of one organelle and
fuse with another, like tiny soap bubbles budding from
and rejoining larger bubbles.

At the surface of the cell, for example, portions of the plasma

membrane tuck inward and pinch off to form vesicles that carry
material captured from the external medium into the cell—a process
called endocytosis.
Golgi Apparatus

This is where sorting, tagging, packaging and

distribution of lipids and proteins take place

A Golgi stack contains 4-8 cisternae. Each Golgi

stack has two faces- the cis face and the trans face.
Both faces are also called the entry face and exit
face, respectively.
Cytoplasm

The plasma membrane encloses a jelly-like mixture

of water, sugars, ions and proteins called cytoplasm.
A major part of a cell’s metabolism occurs in the
cytoplasm, and the cell’s other internal components,
including organelles, are suspended in it.
Cytosol The Cytosol Is a Concentrated Aqueous Gel of
Large and Small Molecules

The cytosol is the part of the cytoplasm that is not

contained within intracellular membranes. In most
cells, the cytosol is the largest single compartment. It
contains a host of large and small molecules,
crowded together so closely that it behaves more like
a water-based gel than a liquid solution
The cytosol is the site of many chemical reactions that are fundamental to the cell’s
existence. The early steps in the breakdown of nutrient molecules take place in the
cytosol, for example, and it is here that most proteins are made by ribosomes.
Cytoskeleton The Cytoskeleton Is Responsible for
Directed Cell Movements.
It provides structural support, development, cell
division and organelle movement.
The cytoplasm is not just a structureless soup of
chemicals and organelles. Using an electron
microscope, one can see that in eukaryotic cells the
cytosol is criss-crossed by long, fine filaments.

Frequently, the filaments are seen to be anchored at one end to the

plasma membrane or to radiate out from a central site adjacent to the
nucleus. This system of protein filaments, called the cytoskeleton, is
composed of three major filament types.
Actin Filaments
It is essential for many of the cell’s movements, especially
those involving the cell surface.

Microtubule
It is a part of the cytoskeleton mainly responsible for
transporting and positioning membrane-enclosed organelles
within the cell and for guiding the intracellular transport of
various cytosolic macromolecules.

Intermediate Filament
are stable, ropelike polymers—built from fibrous protein
subunits—that give cells mechanical strength.
Lysosomes
They contain hydrolytic catalysts that digest
macromolecules, recycle worn-out organelles and
destroy pathogens.

These hydrolytic proteins incorporate nucleases,

proteases, lipases, glycosidases, phosphatase,
phospholipases, and sulphatases.
Mitochondria
It is a site of cellular respiration.
They are generators of chemical energy for the cell.
They harness the energy from the oxidation of food
molecules, such as sugars, to produce adenosine
triphosphate, or ATP— the basic chemical fuel that
powers most of the cell’s activities. Because the
mitochondrion consumes oxygen and releases
carbon dioxide in the course of this activity, the entire
process is called cellular respiration— essentially,
breathing on a cellular level.
Without mitochondria, animals, fungi, and plants would be unable to use oxygen to
extract the energy they need from the food molecules that nourish them.
Chloroplast
Chloroplasts Capture Energy from Sunlight.
Chloroplasts carry out photosynthesis—trapping the
energy of sunlight in their chlorophyll molecules and
using this energy to drive the manufacture of
energy-rich sugar molecules. In the process, they
release oxygen as a molecular by-product. Plant
cells can then extract this stored chemical energy
when they need it, by oxidizing these sugars in their
mitochondria, just as animal cells do.
Chloroplasts thus enable plants to get their energy directly from
sunlight. And they allow plants to produce the food molecules—and
the oxygen—that mitochondria use to generate chemical energy in the
form of ATP.
Nucleus
The Nucleus Is the Information Store of the Cell
The nucleus is usually the most prominent organelle in a eukaryotic
cell.
It is enclosed within two concentric membranes that form the nuclear
envelope, and it contains molecules of DNA—extremely long polymers
that encode the genetic information of the organism.

Nuclear envelope - covers and protects the nucleus

Nucleolus - is an irregularly shaped regions, dense with proteins and
nucleic acids, where subunits of ribosomes are being produced.

Chromatin - is a complex of macromolecules composed of DNA, RNA

and protein, which is found inside the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
Centrioles

It duplicates and moves to opposite ends of the cell

when the cell division begins.
It is a special center that produce and organize
microtubules.
Cell Cycle
Eukaryotic cells possess a complex network of
regulatory proteins known as the cell-cycle control
system.

The cell-cycle control system employs molecular

brakes, sometimes called checkpoints, to pause the
cycle at certain transition points.
In this way, the control system does not trigger
the next step in the cycle unless the cell is
properly prepared.
Progression through the cell cycle depends on
cyclin-dependent protein kinases (Cdks).

Cyclin-dependent kinase must bind a

regulatory protein called cyclin to
become activated. Then, Cdk
complex phosphorylates key proteins
in the cell that are required to initiate
particular steps in the cell cycle.
Dephosphorylation is performed by a set of protein
phosphates.

Distinct Cdks associate with different cyclins to

trigger the different events of the cell cycle.
Cyclin destruction can help drive the transition
from one phase of the cell to the next. For example,
M-cyclin degradation and the resulting
inactivation of the M-Cdks leads to the molecular
event that take the cell out of mitosis.
G1 PHASE
As a general rule, mammalian cells will multiply only
if they are stimulated to do so by extracellular
signals called mitogens, produced by other cells.

When there is damaged DNA, concentration and

activity of p53 protein is increased. This p53 protein
activates the transcription of a gene encoding a
Cdk inhibitor protein called p21.

If the DNA damage is too severe to be repaired, p53

can induce the cell to kill itself by undergoing a form
of programmed cell death called apoptosis.
If p53 is missing or defective, the unrestrained
replication of damaged DNA leads to a high rate of
mutation and the production of cells that tend to
become cancerous. In fact, mutations in the p5
gene are found in half of all human cancers.

In the absence of appropriate signals, other cell

types withdraw from the cell cycle only temporarily,
entering an arrested state called G0. They retain the
ability to reassemble the cell cycle control system
quickly and divide again. Most liver cells , for example, are in
G0 but they can be stimulated to proliferate if the liver is damaged.
S PHASE
S-Cdk initiates DNA replication and blocks re-
replication.
In the first step of replication initiation, the ORC
(origin recognition complex) recruits a protein
called Cdc6, whose concentration rises early in G1.
Together, these proteins load the DNA helicases that
will open up the double helix and ready the origin of
replication.
S-Cdk not only triggers the initiation of DNA
synthesis at a replication origin, it also prevent re-
replication. It does so by helping phosphorylate
Cdc6, which marks that protein for degradation.
Eliminating Cdc6 helps ensure that DNA replication
can not be reinitiated in the same cell cycle.
Incomplete replication can arrest the cell cycle in
G2.

The activity of M-Cdk is inhibited by

phosphorylation at particular sites. For the cell to
progress into mitosis, these inhibitory phosphates
must be removed by an activating protein
phosphatase Cdc25.

Once a cell has successfully replicated its DNA in S

phase and progress through G2, it is ready to enter
M phase.
Cell Division and Cell Cycle
The division of the cell into
two daughter cell occurs in
M Phase of the cell cycle.
This consist of mitosis and
cytokinesis.
Interphase
During interphase, the cell
increases in size. The DNA
of the chromosomes is
replicated and the
centrosome is duplicated.
Prophase
At prophase, the
duplicated chromosomes,
each consisting of two
closely associated sister
chromatids, condense.
Prophase

Outside the nucleus, the

mitotic spindle assembles
between the two
centrosomes, which have
begun to move apart.
Prometaphase
Prometaphase starts
abruptly with the
breakdown of the nuclear
envelope.
Prometaphase

Chromosomes can now

attach to spindle
microtubules via their
kinetochores and undergo
active movement.
Metaphase
At metaphase, the
chromosomes are aligned
at the equator of the
spindle, midway between
the spindle poles.
Metaphase

The kinetochore
microtubules on each
sister chromatid attach to
opposite poles of the
spindle.
Anaphase
At anaphase, the sister
chromatids synchronously
separate and are pulled
slowly toward the spindle
pole to which they are
attached.
Anaphase

The kinetochore
microtubules get shorter.
And the spindle poles also
move apart, both
contributing to
chromosome segregation.
Telophase
During telophase, the two
sets of chromosomes
arrive at the poles of the
spindle. A new nuclear
envelope reassembles
around each set,
completing the formation
of two nuclei and making
the end of mitosis.
Telophase

The division of the

cytoplasm begins with the
assembly of the
contractile ring.
Cytokinesis
During cytokinesis of an
animal cell, the cytoplasm
is divided in two by a
contractile ring of actin
and myosin filaments,
which pinches the cell into
two daughter cells, each
with one nucleus.
Cytokinesis