Reviewer in Biology

BIOLOGY CELL STRUCTURES

Cell structure and Function

 Cells are considered the smallest unit of life, too small (measured in micrometers)
 Cells are considered as the building blocks of life
 Cells being put all together of a certain type form Tissues, if tissues work together, we get an Organ, and a
group of organs that perform a function forms an Organ System

CELLS ----------- TISSUES ----------- ORGANS ---------- ORGAN SYSTEM

3 parts
1. All living things are made of one or more cells (uni or multi cellular)
2. Cells are the basic unit of structure and functions
3. All cells come from cells that already exist or pre-existing cells

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The structure of the cell:

Cellular Membrane: all cells have a cellular membrane

DNA: contain chromatin and protein (transcribed into MRNA to Ribosomes)
Nucleus: separator/ major division
 Eukaryotes have a nucleus (includes animals, plants, fungi)
 Prokaryotes does not have a nucleus – 2 major groups (bacteria, archaea)
Ribosomes – where MRNA Is translated into proteins
Nucleolus – densely packed DNA, RNA and the stuff (ribosomal RNA) that make the ribosomes come from
Cytosol – where ribosomes and protein freely roam
Endoplasmic reticulum – some ribosomes are attached here
 Smooth – no ribosomes attached
 Rough – ribosomes attached
Golgi Apparatus – the Golgi bodies (protein plus a part of the membrane of the Golgi is called a Vesicle)
Lysosomes – contains enzymes in them that help dissolve something (animals)
Vacuole – a general term for a membrane bound organelle that acts as a storage
Organelle – sub unit of a cell
Mitochondria – where sugars are turned into ATP, contain their own DNA, reproduce on their own (ancestors call them
independent prokaryotes)
Chloroplasts – where photosynthesis takes place
Centrioles - 2 of them in right angles make up a centrosome and coordinate microtubules.
Microfilaments help give the cells its actual structure and also facilitate movement

Cell membrane and cell wall

Cell membrane – Important part, the outer most covering of the cell, made of lipids and proteins. Acts as a door, entry
and exit of substances. (selective molecules) separates the cell from the external environment.
Cell wall – additional protecting layer, rigid outer covering of the plant cell (made of cellulose)
 Maintain shape
 Give strength

Movements of substances in a cell as classified into two:

Osmosis – special type of diffusion that allows the movement of water across the cell membrane from high to low region
of water concentration.
- Hypotonic solution: a solution in which the medium surrounding the cell has more water concentration than the
cell
- Plasmolysis: the shrinking of the cytoplasm of the cell away from the cell wall (when there is lower concentration
of water)
Diffusion – the movement of substances from a region of high to low solute concentration

The difference between cell membranes and cell wall

Similarities:
 Both are constituents of a cell
Differences
 Cell membranes are found in all types of cells (animal and plant cells)
 Cell walls are only found in plant cells, bacteria cells, fungi or algae.
 If a cell wall is present, it covers the cell membrane
 Cell membranes are metabolically active, cell walls are not
 The cell membrane is semipermeable while the cell wall is completely permeable to water,
molecules and proteins.
 Cell membranes are lipid bilayers with lipoproteins
 Cell membranes do not contain cellulose but plant cell walls do
 Cell membranes do not contain peptidoglycans but bacterial cell walls do
 Cell membranes are flexible while cell walls are rigid
 Cell membranes contain receptors to receive external signal. Cell walls do not contain receptors
 Cell membranes require nutrients for maintenance while cell walls do not
 Cell membranes have multiple functions (permeability, signal reception, cell division, nerve
conduction, sexual reproduction etc.) while the only function of the cell wall is to protect the cell
from external forces.
Mitochondria: Energy Production
 Found in nearly all eukaryotic cells
 The sites of cellular respiration
Glucose + Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy
Parts:
 outer membrane
 Intermembrane space
 Inner membrane
 Matrix - the space in between the Christe
 Christe – folded for more surface area

Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments

 Sacs containing digestive enzymes
 Can break down macromolecules (protein, fats, carbohydrates)
 Recycle old organelles
 Digestive foreign substances common in WBC
Parts:
 Membrane
 Digestive enzymes and digestive material

Peroxisomes
 Identified as organelles by the Belgian cytologist Christian de Duve in 1967 after they had been first described in
1954 by a Swedish doctor student J. Rhodin.
 Similar to Lysosomes
 Small vesicle containing enzymes for the breakdown of fatty acids and hydrogen peroxide
 Abundant in liver and kidney cells
 Responsible for breaking down alcohol

Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

 Are believed to originate from bacteria
 Both have DNA
 Use enzymatic pathways not present in eukaryotic cells
 Ribosomes look like bacteria
 Make the cyclic flow of mass and energy possible
 Mitochondria utilize organic matter to produce carbon dioxide and water
 Chloroplasts produce organic matter from carbon dioxide and water

The Endomembrane System

Is the collection of membrane-based organelles to create, modify and export products such as proteins and lipids.
Parts:
 Nuclear envelope
 Smooth and Rough ER
o Rough ER has ribosomes, these give the rough appearance, they produce proteins transported by the
transport vesicles to the Golgi Apparatus
o The Smooth ER has no ribosomes and is smooth in appearance, is responsible for detoxification and
production of lipids
 Golgi apparatus -made of a series of flattened sacs that look like pancakes, its job is to package and distribute
cell products (post office)
 Secretory Vesicle merges with the plasma membrane to release substances to the external environment

THE CELLS INTRICATE MACHINERY

 Cell membrane is also called as the plasma membrane (gatekeeper)

 Phospholipid molecules
o 3 parts
 A charged phosphate groups
 Glycerol head Hydrogen
 2 fatty acid chains (tail) Bonds
 The head has charge so it is considered as a polar molecule Can join
(hydrophilic) Water
 Fatty acid chains are considered nonpolar Molecules
(hydrophobic)

 Cholesterol molecules help strengthen the cell membrane (making it more flexible bot not fluid-like)
 Carbohydrate attached to membrane proteins serves as identification tags, enabling cells to be
distinguishable
 Membrane proteins
o Transport proteins – helps the material cross the membrane (extends from the phospholipid layer)
o Channel proteins – from tunnels that help cells to import/export needed materials and expel wastes
o Cell recognition proteins – enables cells to distinguish own cells from that of other organisms, such as
pathogens that may invade the body
o Enzymatic proteins – participate in metabolic reactions such as degradative and synthetic
o Cytoskeleton proteins – acts as a muscle and skeleton to maintain cell shape and motility
o Junction proteins – assist cell to cell adhesion and communication between cells
o Receptor proteins – facilitates exchange of signals with other cells by changing shape
Scientists describes the cell membrane through fluid mosaic model
 First, the cell membrane is described as flexible and not rigid
 Second, the variety of molecules scattered along the membrane provides variety of different texture and patterns
making up a mosaic
The nucleus is the storehouse of genetic information in the form of DNA
 Directs all activities
 Protects the DNA at all times
 Also possess the nucleolus (where ribosomes are made)
The DNA is the long chain of molecules (divided into portions we call them genes)
 The DNA is packed with groups of special proteins called histones which forms complex structure called the
chromatin which further condenses to form chromosomes
 Enclosed by the nucleus envelope (nuclear pores allow passage of large molecules from nucleus to
cytoplasm)
Proteins as macromolecules contain 20 types of amino acids

The Endoplasmic Reticulum:

 Interconnected network of thin and folded membranes
 Arranged like a maze
 The interior of the maze is called (lumen which its surface are the sites for many processes such as production
of proteins and lipids)
 RER and SER

The Golgi Apparatus:

 Where proteins are processed, sorted and delivered

Vesicles: are generally short lived and are formed and recycled as needed by the cell
 Categorized as
o Storage vesicles
o Transport vesicles
o Secretory vesicles

Vacuole: is a fluid filled sac for the storage of materials needed by the cell
 Plants central vacuole (filled with watery fluid to strengthen the cell)
 Animals have small vacuoles

Lysosomes: are round shaped which contains digestive chemicals

 Powerful enzymes known as lysozyme
 Numerous in animal cells less in plant cells

Peroxisomes: contains digestive enzymes more for detoxification processes

 Carry oxidative enzymes
 Break down complex to simple molecules
 Breaks down alcohol
 The liver has more peroxisomes

Mitochondria: supply energy to the cell

 Round to oval shaped organelles
 Have their own ribosomes and DNA
 symbiosis

Plastids: chloroplasts help convert solar energy to chemical energy

 thylakoids – sacs are in the chloroplast membrane (contains chlorophyll – a light absorbing pigment)
 organized into a structure called granum
 stroma is the liquid portion of the chloroplast

Centrosome and Centrioles: small dense region of the cytoplasm which serves as the main microtubule organizing
center (MTOC)

Cilia and Flagella: two locomotory projection in eukaryotes

 cilia much shorter length
 9 microtubule doublets arranged in a circle around to central microtubules called the 9+2 pattern
 Flagella look like a whip

Cytoskeletons: anchored to specific sites in the cell interior

 Removing the cell membrane will not cause the cell to collapse
 Helps the cell organize its contents and direct the cells movements in response to it external environment
 Flexible network of proteins that provide structural supports to:
o Microtubules – lengthy and thickest of the filaments serves as anchorage and produce spindle fibers
o Intermediate filaments – smaller than microtubules and ropelike in appearance
o Microfilaments – thinnest among the cytoskeleton
o Actin filaments – for movement

Cell surfaces and Junctions:

 Channels called “plasmodesmata” – passage for water, nutrients, and chemical messages among plant cells
 Adjacent Animal cells
o Tight junctions – join two cells tightly to form a leakproof sheet
 o Adhesion junctions – act like screws with the cytoskeletal fibers to form strong sheets
o Gap junctions – allow small molecules to flow between two neighboring cells
 Interconnected epithelial sheets – cells that line up in the skin
 Extracellular matrix - acts as a glue to bind the cells together in tissues

Prokaryotes (pro meaning before and karyon meaning nut) – which all means before the nut
Eukaryotes (Greek word eu meaning true and karyon meaning nut) – more complex
Fossil Records- show that the first kind of cell to develop about 3.5 million years ago were the prokaryotes

Bacteria living in extreme environments

 bacteria
 blue-green algae
 archaeans
they possess the simplest cellular components of a prokaryotic cell
Rigid cell wall – responsible to maintain shape
Polysaccharides – capsule which acts as a protective layer outside the cell wall
Nucleoid Region – the irregular-shaped region where genetic material is stored in prokaryotes since they do not have a
nucleus
Ribosomes – where proteins are made
Plasmid –
 an independent circular DNA structure apart from its chromosomal DNA
 advantages – antibacterial resistance
 used for genetic cloning and manipulation
Flagellum – a taillike appendage which allows locomotion
Fimbriae –
 additional smaller and bristle-like fibers that grow over the prokaryotic cell surface
 helps bacteria to attach themselves
Conjugation Pili –
 are tubular structures present in the cell surface which functions for cell-to-cell communication
 pass DNA from one bacterium to the next

Higher forms of organism

 fungi
 plants
 animals
 protists
Eukaryotic cells have many membrane-bound interior compartments and organelles are neatly arranged.
THREE DOMAINS
A possible answer is: Bacteria contain peptidoglycan in the cell wall; archaea do not. The cell membrane in
bacteria is a lipid bilayer; in archaea, it can be a lipid bilayer or a monolayer. Bacteria contain fatty acids on
the cell membrane, whereas archaea contain phytanyl.
 ARCHAE
 BACTERIA
 EUKARYA

Prokaryotic nucleoid (plasmid circular DNA) THIN STRUCTURE

TWO TYPES
 ARCHAEA
 BACTERIA
SAME SHAPE AND SIZE PLUS THE ABSENCE OF NUCLEUS LIKE MITOCHONDRIA AND CHLOROPLAST
 ARCHAEA (SIMILAR TO EUKARYOTES)
A. BACTERIA (ALSO KNOWN AS EUBACTERIA)
1. CAN CAUSE DISEASES
 CLOSTRIDIUM BOTULINUM (FOOD POISONING)
 PROPIONIBACTERIA (PIMPLE)
 STREPTOCOCCUS PYOGENES (SORE THROAT)
2. SOME HAVE ECOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
 LACTOBACILLUS BULGARICUS
 LACTIC ACID
 OIL SPILL EATING BACTERIA
 PRODUCTION OF MEDICINE
3. NITROGEN IS THE MOST ABUNDANT GAS
 NFB (FIXATION OF NITROGEN)
 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS CONTAINS NFB CALLED RHIZOBIUM CONVERT PROTEIN MORE
4. BLUE GREEN ALGAE (CYANOBACTERIA) CAN DO PHOTOSYNTHESIS
B. ARCHAEA BACTERIA (EXTREMOPHILES) USUALLY IN EXTREME ENVIRONMENTS
3 MAJOR GROUPS:
 METHANOGENS (ANAEROBIC THEY PRODUCE METHANE GAS) GROWS IN MARSHES AND
INTESTINAL COWS
 HALOPHILES (AEROBIC- THEY REQUIRE OXYGEN TO SURVIVE) LIVES IN SALTY ENVIRONMENT
10 TIMES SALTIER)
 THERMOPHILES (THERMOACIDOFILES LOVE HEAT PLUS LIVES IN HIGHLY ACIDIC
ENVIRONMENTS, THEY NEED IRON AND SULFUR TO SURVIVE AROUND 170 -300 DEGREES
FARENHEIT, FOUND IN HYDRO THERMAL VENTS)
Eukaryotic nucleus (complex structures) THCIK STRUCTRE
HAVE COMPLEX LIFE PROCESSES

PROKARYOTIC CELL COMMON EUKARYOTIC CELL

NUCLEUS NO YES
MITOCHONDRIA NO CYTOPLASM YES
CHLOROPLAST SOME SPECIES PLASMA MEMBRANE PLANTS AND PROTISTS
LYSOSOME AND NO GENETIC MATERIAL YES
PEROXISOMES
ER AND GOLGI NO RIBOSOMES YES
CELL WALL YES PLANTS, FUNGI AND
PROTISTS
GENETIC MATERIAL HAPLOID DIPLOID
VACUOLES YES YES
1. AMOEBA

Unicellular organism

Ability to change shape through extending and retracting pseudopods

2. NERVE CELL

Neuron-

o fundamental units of the brain and the nervous system

o responsible for receiving sensory input from the external world
o sends motor commands to our muscles
o thin thread like extensions called dendrites receive the impulses from adjoining neurons
o axon is another extension which has several branches where the signal is transmitted to another neuron
via connection called synapse

3. POLLEN GRAINS
o A fine powdery substance consisting of microscopic grains discharged from a male cone
o Each grain contains a male gamete that can fertilize the female ovule
o Transported by the wind or animals

Cell cycle - A series of events that takes place in a cell as it grows and divides

Interphase 3 parts

o G1 – the cell grows rapidly; important processes happen such as

o Protein synthesis
o Carries out metabolic functions
o Cell absorbs nutrients
o Increase size
o Chromosomes unwound (thick-thin=chromatin) which allows the efficient replication process
o S – DNA is replicated, happens in a lot of areas, bubbles are the sites where replication takes place
o If the cell has 12 chromosomes after the synthesis it will become 24, since genes/chromosomes had been
replicated
o Second part of the cycle
o Copying of genetic material happens in the form of nuclear DNA
o Two strands unzip and separate
o 2 identical sets of DNAs
o G2- the cell grows larger in size in preparation for cell division
o Crucial checkpoints are done to ensure if the cell is ready
o Critical checkpoint
o Growing correct size and duplicating DNA without damage is checked here
o Cell division or M phase –
Involves the division of nucleus and the genetic material
During the M stage the hereditary material is given to the daughter cell
o 2 types
 Mitosis – takes place on somatic cells/ body cells
 Gives rise to two identical daughter cells
 Growth
 Repair
 Used for reproduction on eukaryotes

PMAT

PROPHASE – before

o chromatin condenses
o nuclear envelope breaks
o down nucleolus disappears
o two mitotic spindle fibers
METAPHASE – after

o spindle fibers attach to the kinetochore

o line up in the middle

ANAPHASE – up or back

o spindle fiber pulls away

o sister chromatids are tightly paired
o cohesion breaks down the sister chromatids

TELOPHASE – end

o identical chromosomes are positioned at each pole of the cell

o nuclear membrane starts to form
o cytoplasm rebuilds
o chromosome structure is loose for the DNA to be accessible again
o figure 8

CYTOKINESIS

o cleavage furrow in animals

o divides the cytoplasm of the cell
o cell plate in plants
 Meiosis – takes place on sex cells
 Gives rise to four daughter cells that are different
 Involved in reproduction

Interphase is where cell spends most of its time

o G1, S and G2 happens

o The cell grows in size
o Proteins are synthesized
o The cell spends around 90%
o Often called as the resting place but not at rest and not dividing

Mitosis is a fundamental process for life. During mitosis, a cell duplicates all of its contents, including its
chromosomes, and splits to form two identical daughter cells. Because this process is so critical, the steps of mitosis are
carefully controlled by a number of genes. When mitosis is not regulated correctly, health problems such as cancer can
result. In mitosis, the important thing to remember is that the daughter cells should each have the same chromosomes
and DNA as the parent cell. But how does the cell assure that the process takes place efficiently? Here the  cell cycle
checkpoints come in, they play an important role in the control system by sensing defects that occur during essential
processes such as DNA replication or chromosome segregation, and inducing a cell cycle arrest in response until the
defects are repaired. If the checkpoint mechanisms detect problems with the DNA, the cell cycle is halted, and
the cell attempts to either complete DNA replication or repair the damaged DNA. The self-destruction mechanism ensures
that damaged DNA is not passed on to daughter cells and is important in preventing cancer, this process is called
Apoptosis. The three checkpoints which are the G1 checkpoint, G2, checkpoint and the M checkpoint ensures that the cell
has undergone the right and efficient process. If the cell has not met the requirements needed per checkpoint, it will not
be able to transit to the next phase. This ensures that only healthy cells will be able to divide and also assures the delicate
process to take place efficiently.

G1checkpoint – optimum size for growing daughter cells

G2 checkpoint – cells DNA is copied

M checkpoint – assures that the daughter cells have received the correct number of chromatids in both nuclei

CYCLIN - DEPENDENT KINASES -the progress of a cell from one phase to the next of the cell cycle is controlled
by the interaction of special proteins

Maturation – Promoting Factor – allows the cell to pass G2 checkpoints to undergo mitosis

CELL DIVISION – ASSOCIATED WITH GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

CELL REPLACEMENT – OCCURS WHEN OLD CELLS IN THE BODY DIE

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION – PRODUCTION OF OFFSPRING FROM A SINGLE PARENT

BINARY FISSION – CELL PINCHES APART, SPLITS INTO TWO THEN A NEW CELL WALL FORMS BETWEEN TWO
DAUGHTER CELLS

CHROMOSOME – DNA is TIGHTLY COILED IN AN ORGANIZED STRUCTURE

KINETOCHORE – proteins in the centromere (region of condensed chromosomes)

SISTER CHROMATIDS – chromatids refer to each strand of the duplicated chromosomes

MITOSIS is the division of the nucleus into two genetically identical nuclei containing the same full set of DNAs

CYTOKINESIS – cleavage furrow animals, plants cell plate

Physical and chemical external factors help regulate the cell cycle
EXTERNAL

IN VITRO – experiments on mammalian cell in lab setup

CONTACT INHIBITION – when a cell touches another cell – stops dividing

ANCHORAGE DEPENDENT – cell grow if surface is available and stops id detached on culture dish

INTERNAL– kinases and cyclins

KINASE – an enzyme that transfers a phosphate group from a molecule to a target, helps control the cell cycle

CYCLINS – group of proteins and can be rapidly destroyed

APOPTOSIS – programmed cell death

CANCER – group of diseases when there is disruption in the cell cycle

Tumor – disorganized solid mass of cells

BENIGN TUMORS -remain clustered together, harmless, can probably be cured

MALIGNANT TUMORS – metastasize or break away, difficult to get rid of

RADIATION THERAPY – exposure to x rays to kill cancer cells or shrink tumor

CHEMOTHERAPY – used drug to kill actively dividing cells

DOXURUBICIN – potent cancer drug

Difference of sex cells to other cells is that they are haploid

OVUM + SPERM = ZYGOTE
1N - HAPLOID
2N – DIPLOID
Karyotype: chromosomes present in a diploid cell or zygote is studied
A technique that identifies all the homologous chromosomes at a time
We have 46 chromosomes.23 pairs
Homologous chromosomes are same in terms of size, length yet not identical
Autosomes – dictate how you look like

Egg(ovum) has 23 chromosomes

Sperm has 23 chromosomes
Through the process of fertilization- a zygote will form with 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs – this will later develop into an
embryo