GENBIO 1 1ST GRADING REVIEWER • CYTOLOGY - Study of structures and
functions of cells.
Biology - is the science that deals with
structures, functions, and relationships of living
things and their environment.
• Biology comes from the two Greek words:
• Bios - life
• logos - study
• Biology literally means the study of study of
life, meanwhile Biology is a broad field
• There are 3 main branches of Biology:
o Microbiology - study of microorganisms
(bacteria, plankton, etc)
o Botany - study of plants
o Zoology - study of animals
• Unicellular - uni or one// one organism that
contains one cell
• Multicellular - made up of many cells
TRADITIONAL BRANCHES - Established
years ago or very old
• TAXONOMY - study of naming and
classifying organisms (to produce a
common name across the globe)
o Carolus Linnaeus - father of
taxonomy
o Carl von Linnaeus - scientific name
of Carolus
o Cyto - cell
o Logy - study of
• EMBRYOLOGY - study of formation
and development of organisms
o Embryo - development
• ANATOMY - study of structures and
parts of organisms
• PHYSIOLOGY - study of functions of
living organisms and their parts
• BIOCHEMISTRY - study of biochemical
compositions and processes of living
things
o Protein
o Carbohydrate - sugar
o Lipids - fats, oil
o Nucleic acids - DNA & Blueprint
• GENETICS - study of heredity and
variation
• GREGOR MENDEL - FATHER OF
GENETICS
• EVOLUTION - study of origin and
differentiation of various organisms
• CHARLES DARWIN- Father of
Evolution
• ECOLOGY - study of relationships of
organisms with each other and their
environment
o Eco – environment
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UNIFYING THEMES ABOUT LIFE
ENERGY
• it is the ability of organisms to do work
• Green plants obtain energy from
sunlight to undergo photosynthesis
• Humans and animals obtain energy
from other organisms
• PRODUCERS - that can actually
produce their own food
• CONSUMERS - like us humans/ can not
produce own food
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
• the process by which energy is released
by the breakdown of food
METABOLISM
• the sum of all chemical processes
and energy changes happening inside
the body of an organism
1. Uptake - we are up or taking// it happens
to consumers
2.Nutrient Processing - through the
process of photosynthesis
3.Waste elimination - most likely happening
to Fungi
EXCRETION (Excrete)
• the process of removing wastes (E.g.
CO2, H2O, mineral salts, and
nitrogenous waste)
EXCRETORY ORGANS
• Skin - sweat
• Liver - alcohol
• Large Intestine - feces
• Lungs - carbon dioxide
• Kidneys Urinary bladder - blood flow
HOMEOSTASIS
• the maintenance of the body's
internal environment
• All metabolic processes must be
coordinated and regulated
MOTILITY or LOCOMOTION
• the ability of an organism to move from
one place to another by walking, flying,
swimming, gliding, jumping, etc.
• All metabolic processes must be
coordinated and regulated
SESSILE
• organisms that can not move from one
place to another place
PROTOZOA
• animal like organism
PARAMECIUM
• Hair like structures like (Cilia)
EUGLENA
• Long tail use to move itself (Flagella)
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AMOEBA damaged cells, death of cells, and growth
of new cells such as in wound healing
• Also know as “pekeng paa”
• has fluid like things to expand and to move INTUSSUSCEPTION

IRRITABILITY or SENSITIVITY • growth from within among living things

• the ability of an organism to respond ACCRETION

appropriately to stimulus
• growth from the outside among
TROPISM or RESPONSE nonliving things

• the reaction of an organism to stimuli SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

THIGMOTROPISM • it is the union of the sex cells of two parents

to produce a unique individual of their kind
Type of tropism that reacts to according to
touch ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

PHOTOTROPISM • it occurs when an organism makes a

copy of itself
Type of tropism that reacts to light
Fragmentation
GEOTROPISM
- one cuts a certain part of there body to
Type of tropism that responds to the gravity make a new organism almost the same

INDIVIDUAL ADAPTATION Budding

• the ability of an organism to adjust to - occurs in yeast or fungi

changes in the environment
Binary Fission
EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTATION
- occurs in Bacteria
• it is the gradual or rapid change in body
structure or behavior to be better suited to
survive in a new environment
• Examples: Stick insect, Leaf insect,
Hummingbird

CAMOUFLAGE

• means blending in a color in the

environment

GROWTH

• it is an increase in size and volume. It is

associated with the replacement of

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 DOMAINS OF LIFE
PROKAROYOTES
- DOMAIN BACTERIA - EUBACTERIA
- DOMAIN ARCHAE - ARCHAEBACTERIA
EUKARYOTES
- DOMAIN EUKARYA – PROTISTA,
PLANTAE, FUNGI, ANIMALIA
GLUCOSE – main product of photosynthesis
ORGANS – group of tissues with the same role
can form organs according to the vertical
organization.
LESSON 2: LIFE IN A CELL
CHAPTER 1: THE CELL AND ITS
BEGINNING
ROBERT HOOKE
• He was appointed by King Charles II of
England to conduct microscopic
examination
• He observed a thin slice of cork under
his devised microscope
‘Cellulae’
• small room
Micrographia
• his manuscript wherein his collection of
illustrations from his observation are
compiled
ANTONIE VAN LEEUWENHOEK
• Credited to be the first to study magnified
cells
• He devised a crude microscope with a
lense that can magnify microscopic objects
270 x
• he observed microscopic things in pond
water, blood, semen, and feces.
• ‘Animalcules’ - little animals
• Father Of Microbiology
• Crude Microscope - small microscope
THE CELL THEORY
MATTHIAS JAKOB SCHLEIDEN
• He confirmed that all plants are made
up of cells
THEODOR SCHWANN
• He confirmed that all animals are made
up of cells
RUDOLF CARL VIRCHOW
• He proposed that all cells came from
other cells through the process of cell
division
THE CELL THEORY
1. All organisms are composed of one or
more cells.
2. Cells are the smallest and basic units of
structure and function in organisms.
3. Cells arise only from previously existing
cells.
CHAPTER 2 BASIC CELL TYPES
• PROKARYOTES - prokaryotic cell
• EUKARYOTES - eukaryotic cell
PROKARYOTES
• Pro’- before; karyon- nut
• The genetic material is not encased in a
nucleus
• Eubacteria; Archaea
• Plasma membrane - for homeostasis
• Cell Wall - peptidoglycan (eubacteria );
pseudomurein (archeans)
Peptidoglycan - the composition of a cell wall
(Carbohydrates)
Pseudomurein - the composition of archeans
Nucleoid region - place within the cells body
where we can see/ find the genetic material
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• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)–storage of
genetic material
• Ribosomes – site of protein synthesis.
• Plasmid – independent circular DNA,
KEEPS ON
PROKARYOTES: APPENDAGES
• Flagellum – for locomotion; whip-like
structure rotating 360 degrees and moving
back and forth to propel the bacteria
• Fimbriae – for attachment; small and
bristle-like structures that grow over the
cell’s surface
• Conjugation pili - for conjugation; tubular
structures that function for cell-to-cell
communication, as well as to pass DNA
from one bacterium to another
• Bacteria can do both asexual and sexual
reproduction
• Conjugation - sexual reproduction of
bacteria
EUKARYOTES
• ‘Eu’ –true; ‘karyon’ –nut
3 FUNDAMENTAL STRUCTURES OF A
CELL
• Plasma Membrane
• Cytoplasm
• Nucleus
PLASMA MEMBRANE
• Also known as ‘cell membrane’
• Fluid mosaic model (Not solid)
FUNCTIONS OF PLASMA MEMBRANE:
• It provides a barrier separating a cell to
external environment
• It secures the cell content
• It regulates the passage of into and out
of the cell materials
• It regulates the inside the cell
temperature
PLASMA MEMBRANE: PHOSPHOLIPID
BILAYER
PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER - main or major
structure

• The genetic material is encased in a • HEAD – polar; hydrophilic (water loving)

nucleus • Phosphate
• They have a nucleus • Glycerol
• more complex in structures • TAIL - non-polar; hydrophobic (water
• bigger than prokaryotes fearing)
• Fatty acids
• Protista
• Plantae PLASMA MEMBRANE: OTHER
MOLECULES
• Fungi
CHOLASTEROL
• Animalia
• It helps strengthen the cell membrane,
CHAPTER 3: THE CELL’S INTRICATE making it more flexible but less fluid.
MACHINERY
CARBOHYDRATES
CELL
• It serves as identification tags.
• The basic unit of life”
MEMBRANE PROTIENS
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 • Serves as a passageway for molecules
to pass in and out of the plasma
membrane.
CELL WALL
• It is a rigid structure that provides
protection, support, and shape to the
cell
• Plants –cellulose
• Fungi –chitin
• Bacteria -peptidoglycan
(NOT ALL EUKARYOTES HAVE A
NUCLEUS)
Cellulose - can not be digested in our body
most commonly in plants
CYTOPLASM
• It fills the space between the nucleus
and the cell membrane where the
organelles are embedded
• It is made up by fluid called cytosol
• The cytosol contains a high
concentration of water essential for the
chemical reactions inside the cell.
NUCLEUS: GENETIC CONTROL
ORGANELLES
• It is the storehouse of genetic
information in the form of DNA inside
the cells
• It protects the DNA
• It ensures the transmission of instruction
be made possible at proper times
• Nuclear Envelope – a special semi-
permeable membrane that encloses the
nucleus
• Nuclear Pores – it allows the passage
of molecules large molecules between
the nucleus and cytoplasm
DNA
• Deoxyribonucleic acid
• It is a long chain of molecules that
contain instructions for making proteins
3 STRUCTURES OF DNA:
• Sugar
• Phosphate
• Nitrogenous bases
Adenine and Thynine - mag pair
Guanine and Cytosine - mag pair
• Genes–segments of DNA
• Histones–a special type of protein
where the DNA is coiled
• Chromatin–histones+ DNA
• Chromosome–tightly coiled chromatin
(Preparing to divide)
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
• a special semi permeable membrane
that encloses the nucleus
NUCLEAR PORES
• it allows the passage of molecules large
molecules between the nucleus and
cytoplasm
NUCLEOLUS
• a dense potion inside the nucleus which
manufactures ribosomes
RIBOSOMES
• it manufactures proteins
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM:
MANUFACTURING
ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• Dotted with ribosomes
• Manufactures proteins
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• No ribosomes on the surface
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 • Detoxifies drug and alcohol • Round-shaped, membrane-bound
structures containing chemical that can
GOLGI APPARATUS: MANUFACTURING
breakdown materials in the cells
• ER →Golgi Apparatus
• Lyzozymes–defend the cells from
• It is a layered stacks of membrane- invading bacteria and viruses
enclosed spaces where the proteins are
• Abundant animal cells; few or none in
processed, sorted, and delivered
plant cells
• Cis - receiver
MITOCHONDRIA: ENERGY PROCESSING
• Trans – transport
• Powerhouse of the cell
• They have to be processed together
• Matrix–fluid portion inside the
VESICLES: DISTRIBUTION mitochondria where the

TRANSFER VESICLES • Cristae–inner membrane

• bud-off from either ER or Golgi • Outer membrane

apparatus forming a membrane-bound
• ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP)
sac enclosing the proteins for transport
within the cell. PLASTIDS: ENERGY PROCESSING
SECRETORY VESICLES • Chloroplasts - help plants convert solar
energy to chemical energy
• bud-off from the Golgi apparatus
(photosynthesis)
forming a membrane-bound sac
enclosing protein for transport outside • Inner and outer membrane
the cell.
• Thylakoids – 3rd membrane
STORAGE VESICLES
• Granum – stacks of thylakoids
• bud-off from Golgi apparatus forming a
• Stroma – liquid portion of chloroplast
membrane-bound sac that encloses
proteins for temporary storage • They also have their own ribosomes and
DNA
VACUOLES: STORAGE (Food and water)
• DNA can also be found in Chloroplasts
• Animals –many small vacuoles
Endosymbiotic theory
• Plants –large central vacuole
• big cell that eats chloroplasts and
• FUNCTIONS:
mitochondria so that we have no
◇ Storage eukaryotic cells and we only have
prokaryotic cells.
◇ Support
• ALL MITOCHONDRIA COMES FROM
◇ Protection (toxins)
THE MOTHERS
LYSOSOMES: BREAKDOWN OF CENTRIOLES: STRUCTURAL SUPPORT
ORGANELLES
• Cylinder shaped

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 • Centrioles move to the opposite end of MICROFILAMENTS
the cell during cell division
• also known as ‘actin filament’
• Microtubules develop from the
• Thinnest
centrosome forming spindle fiber
• Provides protective meshwork under the
SPINDLE FIBER
plasma membrane
• To attach themselves to the
• Allows the muscles to contract and relax
chromosomes
PLASMODESMATA: COMMUNICATION
• properly separate the chromosomes
• These are numerous channels in plants
CYTOSKELETON: STRUCTURAL SUPPORT
for communication in adjacent cells
• It anchors the organelles to specific site
• Sharing of water, nutrients, and
in the cell interior
chemical messages among plant cells
• 3 CLASSIFICATIONS:
TIGHT JUNCTIONS: COMMUNICATION
• Microtubules
• In animals; joins two cells tightly
• Intermediate Filaments together to form a leak-proof sheet
• Microfilaments ADHESION JUNCTIONS: COMMUNICATION
MICROTUBULES • In animals; acts like screws together
with cytoskeletal fibers to form strong
• It anchors the organelles to specific site
sheets
in the cell interior
GAP JUNCTIONS: COMMUNICATION
• Anchorage for the membrane-bound
organelles and other cell parts Acts as • In animals; play a similar role to that of
‘tracks’ for the movement of vesicles plasmodesmata, as both allow small
molecules to flow between neighboring
• Forms the flagellum
cells
INTERMIDIATE FILAMENT
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
• Rope-like
• Acts as glue to bind the cells together in
• Thinner than microtubules; thicker than tissues and provide mechanical strength
microfilaments
• Signal development
• Provides tensile strength and stretch
• Movement
ability
• Coordination
• Abundant in skin and skin’s accessory
organs (E.g. claws, hairs, and feathers)
Monomer - 1 strands
Dimer - 2 strands
Tetramer - 4 strands

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CHAPTER 3: Cell Cycle and Mitosis
WHY MUST CELLS DIVIDE?
• Growth
• To reproduce
• Exchange the dead cells with a new one
• To heal any wound / to repair tissues
Cell Division
- A parent cell divides into two
daughter cells
- For reproduction, growth, and repair
2 types of cell division
1. Mitosis
-Division of somatic cells (Body cells)
2. Meiosis
-Division of germ and sex cells
Chromosomes
A long, continuous thread of DNA wounded
together with a protein. Referred as histones.
46 chromosomes (23pairs)
Autosomes
- 2 pair (Body Chromosomes)
- encodes our physical
characteristics/attributes
Allosome- 1 pair (Sex Chromosomes)
- determines the gender of a person
- XY- Male
- XX- Female
Trisomy 21 (cause down syndrome)
Karyotyping
- The process of viewing chromosomes in
arranged order in a diagram called
karyogram
CHROMOSOMES PARTS:
Chromatids
- refer to each strand of duplicated
chromosomes
- 2 chromatids each pair of
chromosomes; sister chromatids
(when chromatids are combined)
Centromere
- Region of condensed pinched
chromosomes
- to glue the sister chromatids ; center ;
located at the middle part of the
chromosomes
Kinetochore
- A protein where spindle fibers attach
during cell division
- portion of the centromere; located at
centromere
Telomeres
- Prevents ends of chromosomes form
attaching to another and prevent the
loss of gens
- located at the tippest part of the
chromosome; to prevent chromatids
from
sticking with each other; while the cells kept on
dividing, the telomeres are napupudpod ;
- cancer cells have unlimited telomeres
(hindi napupudpod that’s why they kept
on dividing and growing)
p arm- Short, upper arms
- small part of the chromatid ; p = petite
q arm- long, lower arms
- longer part of the chromatid
THE CELL CYCLE
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Interphase (Longest stage) – Growth period
of the cell, growth of the two small daughter
cells
Gap 1 (G1) Phase
- The cell carries out its normal
metabolic functions
- The cells increases in size as their
organelles increases their number
Gap 1 (G1) Checkpoint (Restriction Point)
- It ensures that the cell is large
enough to divide and that enough
nutrients are available to support the
resulting daughter cells.
- Go - Proceed to the cycle
- Stop - Proceed to gap 0 (G0) phase or
non-dividing state
Apoptosis- this is the programmed death or
suicide cells
Lysosomes – organelle that kills the rejected
cells.
1. Synthesis (S) Phase
- The DNA of the cell undergoes
replication
- This process ensures that the
daughter cell receives the DNA copies
of the parent cells
Gap 2 (G2) Phase
- The cell continues its normal metabolic
function and also undergoes further
growth in preparation for the cell
division
Gap 2 (G2) Checkpoint
- It ensures that the DNA replication on
s phase has been successfully
completed
- It also ensures that the cell is in the
correct size before cell division
Mitosis (PMAT)
- It involves the division of nucleus and
the genetic material
- This leads to the formation of daughter
cells containing identical genetic
materials
- It occurs in somatic cells
Prophase
- The chromatin condenses into
- chromosomes.
• Genetic material of cell is not yet
dividing,
- it is called chromatin.
• It will be transformed into
chromosomes
- when cell is about to divide.
• Nuclear membrane & nucleolus
will
- disappear / disintegrate [chromosomes
- will be visible/exposed in cytoplasm
- (where centrioles are located - produces
- spindle fiber)]
• Centrioles migrate towards the
opposite
- pole and form spindle fiber
• The spindle fibers elongate and
attach to
- the kinetochore of the chromosome
Metaphase
- he spindle fibers move the sister
chromatids towards the middle of the
cell (metaphase plate)
- Metaphase checkpoint - It ensures that
all of the chromosomes are attached to
the mitotic spindle by a kinetochore
Anaphase
- The cohesin, a protein component of
centromere, breaks down and sister
chromatids separate moving towards
the opposite pole due to the shortening
of spindle fibers
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Telophase
- The two complete sets of identical
chromatids are now positioned at each
pole of the cell
- The spindle fibers start to disintegrate
- The nuclear membrane starts to reform
on each set of chromosomes.
- Chromatids uncoil to become chromatin.
- Nucleolus reform.
Cytokinesis – (Shortest phase)
- This is the stage where the two new nuclei
are compartmentalized into separate daughter
cells and complete the mitotic cell division
process.
- Animal cell- Cleavage Furrow
- Plant cell- Cell Plate
Kinase- this gives ‘go’ signals at G1 and G2
checkpoints
Cyclin activates kinase
- This is a protein which activates or
deactivates another protein by
phosphorylating them

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