Cell cycle and Division
Cell Cycle and Division
 Basis of cell division –
1. To restore ratio of volume of nucleus and
volume of cytoplasm i.e Vn / Vc
2. Surface area-Volume ratio
Small cell- high (more efficient exchange of
materials)
As Cell size ↑– Ratio ↓-efficiency ↓
 Types of cell division-
1. Amitosis / Direct division
2. Mitosis
3. Meiosis
 Amitosis / Direct division –
 Discovered by Fleming
 No chromosome formation
 No spindle formation
 No dissolution of nuclear
membrane (intact)
 Nuclear constriction followed by
cytoplasmic constriction
 Quick , less energy consuming –
Advantage
 Disadvantage –
Daughter cells may be unequal in size
Unequal distribution of chromatin
Eg-
1. Prokaryotes(some bacteria , BGA)
2. Ciliated protozoa (Paramoecium)
3. Old plant cells
4. Chondrocytes ( cartilage forming cells)
5. Extra-embryonic membrane cells
CELL CYCLE
The sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its
genome, synthesizes the other constituents of the cell
and eventually
divides into two daughter cells is termed cell cycle.
Yeast can progress through the cell cycle in only
about 90 minutes. (Human cell-24 hours)
The interphase lasts more than 95% of the duration of
cell cycle.
 Trick for cell cycle stages –
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1. I - Interphase
2. Pray - Prophase
3. More - Metaphase
4. At - Anaphase
5. Temple - Telophase
 Interphase / Preparatory / Resting / Growth
/Non-dividing /Energy phase is divided into
3 further phases:
 G1 phase (Gap 1) / Post-mitotic- During G1
phase the cell is metabolically active (energy
phase) & continuously grows but does not
replicate its DNA.
 S phase (Synthesis)
S or synthesis phase marks the
period during which DNA
synthesis or replication takes place.
During this time the amount of
DNA per cell doubles. In animal
cells, during the S phase, DNA
replication begins in the nucleus,
and the centriole duplicates in the
cytoplasm.
 During S-phase : DNA content
doubles but chromosome number
remains same
 G2 phase (Gap 2)
During the G2 phase, proteins are
synthesized in preparation for mitosis while
cell growth continues.
Quiescent stage (G0) of the cell cycle
 Quiescent stage (G0) of the cell cycle
 Some cells in the adult animals do not
appear to exhibit division (e.g., heart ,
muscle cells & neurons) and many other
cells divide only occasionally, as
needed to replace cells that have been
lost because of injury or cell death.
 Temporary or permanent
 These cells that do not divide further
exit G1 phase to enter an inactive stage
called quiescent stage (G0) of the cell
cycle.
 Cells in this stage remain metabolically
active but no longer proliferate unless
called on to do so depending on the
requirement of the organism.

 Check points in cell cycle – 1.G1 / G1 – S
check point – it checks for
 Abnormal DNA
 Raw materials for S-phase
 ATP synthesis
 Activates CDK (Cyclin Dependent
Kinases) & cyclins (proteins)
2. G2 / G2 – M check point – it checks for
 DNA replication
 Histone synthesis
 Tubulin protein synthesis
 Centriole & cell organelle
duplication
3. M- check point (Metaphase-Anaphase) – it
checks for
 Chromosome alignment on
equatorial / metaphase plate
 Spindle attachment on kinetochore
/ centromere
 Regulation of cell cycle –
 Genetically controlled through-
1. Cyclins (Proteins& activates CDK)
2. CDK
a) G1 cyclin – formed in G1 & degradation in
S-phase
b) M cyclin – formed in G2 & degradation in
M- phase
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Cell cycle and Division
* M-cyclin – CDK →MPF (Maturation Promoting
Factor)
M-PHASE
This is the most dramatic period of the cell
cycle, involving a major reorganisation of
virtually all components of the cell.
Mitosis -
 Since the number of chromosomes in
the parent and progeny cells is the
same, it is also called as Equational /
Duplication / Somatic cell division.
 Mitosis discovery-
Plant cells – Strasburger
Animal cells – Boveri & Flemming
Best material to study Mitosis – Onion root
tip
1. PROPHASE – longest phase
Prophase is marked by the initiation of
condensation of chromosomal material.
The chromosomal material becomes
untangled during the process of chromatin
condensation. The centriole, which had
undergone duplication during S phase of
interphase, now begins to move towards
opposite poles of the cell.
The completion of prophase can thus be
marked by the following characteristic
events:
 Chromosomal material condenses to
form compact mitotic
chromosomes. Chromosomes are
seen to be composed of two
chromatids attached together at the
centromere.
 Initiation of the assembly of mitotic
spindle, the microtubules, the
proteinaceous components of the cell
cytoplasm help in the process.
Cells at the end of prophase, when viewed under the
microscope, do not show golgi complexes,
endoplasmic reticulum, nucleolus and the nuclear
envelope.
2. METAPHASE
 Spindle fibres attach to kinetochores of
chromosomes.

 Chromosomes are moved to spindle equator
and get aligned along metaphase plate
through spindle fibres to both poles.
3. ANAPHASE
 Centromeres split and chromatids separate.
 Chromatids move to opposite poles.
 Shortest phase
4. TELOPHASE
 Chromosomes cluster at opposite spindle
poles and their identity is lost as discrete
elements.
 Nuclear envelope assembles around the
chromosome clusters.
 Nucleolus, golgi complex and ER reform.
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Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
Cell cycle and Division
CYTOKINESIS
 In an animal cell, this is achieved by the
appearance of a furrow in the plasma
membrane. (contractile ring formation by
Microfilaments)
 The furrow gradually deepens and
ultimately joins in the centre dividing the
cell cytoplasm into two. (Centripetal)
 Plant cells however, are enclosed by a
relatively inextensible cell wall, thererfore
they undergo cytokinesis by a different
mechanism.
 In plant cells, wall formation starts in the
centre of the cell and grows outward to meet
the existing lateral walls. (Centrifugal)
 The formation of the new cell wall begins
with the formation of a simple precursor,
called the cell-plate that represents the
middle lamella between the walls of two
adjacent cells.
At the time of cytoplasmic division, organelles like
mitochondria and plastids get distributed between the
two daughter cells. In some organisms karyokinesis
is not followed by cytokinesis as a result of which
multinucleate condition arises leading to the
formation of syncytium. e.g., liquid endosperm in
coconut
SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS
 Mitosis results in the production of diploid
daughter cells with identical genetic
complement usually.
 The growth of multicellular organisms is
due to mitosis.
 Cell growth results in disturbing the ratio
between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
 It therefore becomes essential for the cell to
divide to restore the nucleo-cytoplasmic
ratio.
 Healing of wounds
 A very significant contribution of mitosis is
cell repair. The cells of the upper layer of
the epidermis, cells of the lining of the gut,
and blood cells are being constantly
replaced.
 Cell cycle and Division
 Mitotic divisions in the meristematic tissues
– the apical and the lateral cambium, result MEIOSIS
in a continuous growth of plants throughout Meiosis ensures the production of haploid phase in
their life.
the life cycle of sexually reproducing organisms
whereas fertilisation restores the diploid phase.
 Mitogens – Induce mitosis
1. Auxin Meiosis involves two sequential cycles of nuclear and
2. Gibberellins cell division called meiosis I and meiosis II but only
3. Cytokinins a single cycle of DNA replication.
4. Insulin  Meiosis I is initiated after the parental
chromosomes have replicated to produce
identical sister chromatids at the S phase.
Cell cycle inhibitors ( Mitotic inhibitors)  Meiosis involves pairing of homologous
1. Actinomycin – D chromosomes and recombination between
2. Azide & Cyanid them.
3. Mustard gas  Four haploid cells are formed at the end of
4. Chalones – natural , tissue specific meiosis II.
mitotic suppresants (G1 / G2) eg-
Myostatins of muscle cells MEIOSIS
5. Colchicine – Prophase I:
 Alkaloid from seeds / corm(bulb-like It is typically longer and more complex when
underground stem) of Colchicum autumnale compared to prophase of mitosis. It has been further
(Liliaceae) subdivided into the following five phases based on
 It inhibits spindle fibre formation (disrupt / chromosomal behaviour.
inhibit microtubule polymerization) –
Metaphase
A. Leptotene-
 Induces polyploidy in plants
 The chromosomes become gradually visible
under the light microscope.
Mitotic inhibitors use -  The compaction of chromosomes continues
1. Used in cancer treatment throughout leptotene.
2. In Cytogenetics ( study of  This is followed by the second stage of
chromosomes) prophase

1. Chromatin
2. Chromosome B. Zygotene-
3. Chromatid  During this stage chromosomes start pairing
4. Kinetochore together and this process of association is
called synapsis. Such paired chromosomes
5. Bivalent
are called homologous chromosomes.
6. Tetrad  Electron micrographs of this stage indicate
that chromosome synapsis is accompanied
by the formation of complex structure called
synaptonemal complex.
 The complex formed by a pair of synapsed
homologous chromosomes is called a
bivalent or a tetrad.
 However, these are more clearly visible at
the next stage

C. Pachytene-
 During this stage bivalent chromosomes
now clearly appears as tetrads.
 This stage is characterised by the appearance
of recombination nodules, the sites at which
crossing over occurs between non-sister
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Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005

chromatids of the homologous
chromosomes.
 Crossing over is the exchange of genetic
material between two homologous
chromosomes.
 Crossing over is also an enzyme-mediated
process and the enzyme involved is called
recombinase.
 Crossing over leads to recombination of
genetic material on the two chromosomes.
D. Diplotene-
 The beginning of diplotene is recognised by
the dissolution of the synaptonemal complex
and the tendency of the recombined
homologous chromosomes of the bivalents
to separate from each other except at the
sites of crossovers.
 These X-shaped structures, are called
chiasmata.
 In oocytes of some vertebrates, diplotene
can last for months or years.
E. Diakinesis –
 This is marked by terminalisation of
chiasmata.
 During this phase the chromosomes are fully
condensed and the meiotic spindle is
assembled to prepare the homologous
chromosomes for separation.
 By the end of diakinesis, the nucleolus
disappears and the nuclear envelope also
breaks down.
 Diakinesis represents transition to
metaphase.
Metaphase I:
 The bivalent chromosomes align on the
equatorial plate.
 The microtubules from the opposite poles of
the spindle attach to the pair of homologous
chromosomes.
Anaphase I:
 The homologous chromosomes separate,
while sister chromatids remain associated at
their centromeres.
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Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005
Cell cycle and Division
Telophase I:
 The nuclear membrane and nucleolus
reappear, cytokinesis follows and this is
called as diad of cells.
 Although in many cases the chromosomes
do undergo some dispersion, they do not
reach the extremely extended state of the
interphase nucleus.
 The stage between the two meiotic divisions
is called interkinesis and is generally short
lived.
 Interkinesis is followed by prophase II, a
much simpler prophase than prophase I.
MEIOSIS II
Prophase II:
Meiosis II is initiated immediately after cytokinesis,
usually before the chromosomes have fully
elongated. The nuclear membrane disappears by the
end of prophase II . The chromosomes again become
compact.
Metaphase II:
At this stage the chromosomes align at the equator
and the microtubules from opposite poles of the
spindle get attached to the kinetochores of sister
chromatids.
Anaphase II:
It begins with the simultaneous splitting of the
centromere of each chromosome allowing them to
move toward opposite poles of the cell.
Telophase II:
Meiosis ends with telophase II, in which the two
groups of chromosomes once again get enclosed by a
nuclear envelope; cytokinesis follows resulting in the
formation of tetrad of cells i.e., four haploid daughter
cells
 Anaphase I & Anaphase-II
 Disjunction of chromosomes and chromatids
 After meiosis – I chromosome number
halves
 After meiosis – II DNA Content halves
 Cell cycle and Division

SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS

 Meiosis is the mechanism by which

conservation of specific chromosome
number of each species is achieved across
generations in sexually reproducing
organisms.
 It results in reduction of chromosome
number by half.
 It also increases the genetic variability in the
population of organisms from one
generation to the next.
 Variations are very important for the process
of evolution.
 Important formulae to calculate No. of
meiosis required :
 Here n = no. of gametes / pollen
grains / zygote / seeds / fruit
1. For male gametes = n/4
2. For female gametes = n
3. For seeds = n + n/4 or n X 1.25

Head Office : Plot No. 46, In front of Skyline Apartments, Corner Building,
Rajeev Gandhi Nagar, Kota (Raj.) Pin Code : 324005