CELL DIVISION

- is the life story of a cell, the stages through

which it passes from one division to the next
- is critical to genetics because, through the
The Cell Cycle cell cycle, the genetic instructions for all
characteristics are passed from parent to
daughter cells
 Interphase A new cycle begins after
a cell has divided and
produced two new cells

Each new cell

The Cell Cycle Cell matures and then
eventually divides
metabolizes, grows, and
develops

Progression through the cell cycle is

M Phase regulated at key transition points
called checkpoints.
 Interphase

- the period between cell divisions

- cell grows, develops, and functions
The Cell Cycle - critical events necessary for cell division also
take place
- G1 Phase, S Phase, G2 Phase
 - the period of active cell division
- includes mitosis, the process of nuclear
The Cell Cycle division, and cytokinesis, or cytoplasmic
division

M Phase
 Interphase

The Cell Cycle

G1/S Checkpoint- decides whether a cell should divide, delay division, or enter a resting
stage.

G2/M Checkpoint- ensures all chromosomes have been replicated and not damaged
before cells enter M Phase

Spindle-Assembly Checkpoint- Determines whether sister chromatids are correctly

M Phase
attached to the spindle microtubules before the cell enters anaphase, an irreversible
stage of cell division.
 Gap Phase 1

Interphase:
Replicating the Interphase typically occupies about
Synthesis Phase 90% of the total cell cycle.
Hereditary
Material

Gap Phase 2
 - It is usually the longest interval of interphase
Gap Phase 1 and is a period of cell growth and the
metabolic activities characteristic of the
particular cell type.
Interphase: - ends with the beginning of the S phase
Replicating the
Hereditary
Material
 - Before a cell divides, an exact copy of the DNA is
made during the S phase (replication).
- Replication is essential to ensure that each
daughter cell receives identical genetic material
Interphase: to that present in the parent cell. The result is a
pair of identical sister chromatids
Replicating the
Synthesis Phase
Hereditary
Material
 - As the cell cycle moves into the G2 phase, the chromosomes
begin condensation.
- the cell also begins to assemble the structures that it will
later use to move the chromosomes to opposite poles (ends) of
Interphase: the cell (centrioles, proteins)
Replicating the
Hereditary
Material

Gap Phase 2
 Prophase

Prometaphase
Mitosis is divided into five phases:
prophase, prometaphase, metaphase,
M PHASE: Metaphase
anaphase, and telophase.
Mitosis In a dividing cell, however, the process is
actually continuous, with each phase
Anaphase smoothly flowing into the next.

Telophase
 Prophase

Prometaphase

- Occurs in all cells (somatic cells) in the

M PHASE: Metaphase
body except the germ cells
Mitosis - Produces two identical daughter cells
with complete sets of chromosomes
Anaphase

Telophase
 - Gr. pro, before + phase
Prophase - Chromosomes condense and mitotic spindle
forms

M PHASE:
Mitosis
 - Nuclear envelope disintegrates, and spindle
microtubules anchor to kinetochores.

Prometaphase

M PHASE:
Mitosis
 - Gr. meta, after + phase
- Chromosomes align on the metaphase plate;
spindle-assembly checkpoint.

M PHASE: Metaphase
Mitosis
 - Gr. ana, back again + phase
- Sister chromatids separate, becoming
individual chromosomes that migrate toward
spindle poles.

M PHASE:
Mitosis
Anaphase
 - Gr. telos, end + phase
- Chromosomes arrive at spindle poles, the
nuclear envelope re-forms, and the
condensed chromosomes relax.

M PHASE:
Mitosis

Telophase
 - final phase of cell division, in which the cytoplasm divides
- usually starts sometime during late anaphase or early telophase
Cytokinesis - a contracting belt of microfilaments called the contractile ring pinches the
plasma membrane to form the cleavage furrow
- furrow deepens, and two new, genetically identical, daughter cells form

M PHASE:
Cytokinesis
 Sexual Reproduction
- requires a genetic contribution from two
different sex cells
- Egg and sperm cells are specialized sex cells
called gametes
MEIOSIS: The - a male gamete (sperm) unites with a female
Basis of Sexual gamete (egg) during fertilization to form a
single cell called a zygote
Reproduction - The zygote is the first cell of the new animal
- fusion of nuclei within the zygote brings
together genetic information from the two
parents, and each parent contributes half of
the genetic information to the zygote
 - occurs in germ-line cells of the ovaries and
MEIOSIS: The testes and reduces the number of
Basis of Sexual chromosomes to the haploid (1N) number
- nuclei of the two gametes combine during
Reproduction fertilization and restore the diploid number
 Meiosis I Overview of Meiosis
1. Meiosis begins after the G2 phase in the cell
cycle— after DNA replication.
2. Two successive nuclear divisions, designated
meiosis I and meiosis II, take place.
MEIOSIS: The 3. The two nuclear divisions of meiosis result in
Basis of Sexual four daughter cells, each with half the
number of chromosomes of the parent cell.
Reproduction 4. Moreover, these daughter cells are not
genetically identical.
5. Like mitosis, meiosis is a continuous process,
and biologists divide it into the phases that
Meiosis II follow only for convenience.
 Meiosis I

MEIOSIS: The
Basis of Sexual
Reproduction

Meiosis II
 - chromatin folds and chromosomes become visible under a light
microscope
Prophase I - homologous chromosomes line up side-by-side in a process called
synapsis forming a tetrad of chromatids
- Synapsis initiates crossing-over, whereby the nonsister chromatids of
the two homologous chromosomes in a tetrad exchange DNA segments
Meiosis I:
Separation of
Homologous
Chromosomes
 - the microtubules form a spindle apparatus just as in mitosis
- each pair of homologues lines up in the center of the cell, with
centromeres on each side of the spindle equator
- microtubule from one pole attaches to one chromosome of a
homologous pair, and a microtubule from the other pole attaches to the
other member of the pair
Metaphase I

Meiosis I
 - homologous chromosomes separate
- two chromosomes of a homologous pair are pulled toward opposite poles

Meiosis I
Anaphase I
 - the chromosomes arrive at the spindle poles and the cytoplasm divides

Meiosis I

Telophase I
 - the nuclear membrane re-forms around the chromosomes
Interkinesis clustered at each pole, the spindle breaks down, and the
chromosomes relax
 - the chromosomes recondense, the spindle re-forms, and the nuclear
envelope once again breaks down
Prophase II - some types of cells, the chromosomes remain condensed, and the spindle
does not break down; these cells move directly from cytokinesis into
metaphase II

Meiosis II:
Separation of
Chromatids
 - similar to metaphase of mitosis: the individual chromosomes line up on the
metaphase plate, with the sister chromatids facing opposite poles

Metaphase II

Meiosis II
 - the kinetochores of the sister chromatids separate and the chromatids
are pulled to opposite poles
- Each chromatid is now a distinct chromosome

Meiosis II
Anaphase II
 - the chromosomes arrive at the spindle poles, a nuclear envelope re-
forms around the chromosomes, and the cytoplasm divides
- chromosomes relax and are no longer visible

Meiosis II

Telophase II
 Products
- 4 haploid cells that are not genetically
identical

MEIOSIS: The
Basis of Sexual
Reproduction
Sources of 1. Crossing over
Genetic Variations 2. Random separation of homologous
chromosomes
in Meiosis