CELL CYCLE: - Cell cycle is genetically controlled dynamic sequential events

in which cell increases in size, replication of DNA increase cytoplasmic events, dividing equally
into two daughter cells by process of cell division.

PHASES OF CELL CYCLE:-

 FIG:-GENERAL CELL DIVISION

AT FIRST IMAGE INDICATES PROPHASE

AFTER PROPHASE METAPHASE STAGE COMES IN WHERE CHROMOSOMES ALIGN AT EQUATOR

THEN MOVEMENT OF CHROMOSOMES OCCUR AT ANAPHASE STAGE

AT LAST TELOPHASE OCCURS

The cell cycle is divided into 2

CELL CYCLE
phases – 1.Interphase 2.M phase
G1

1. Interphase: - (lasts
S
more than 95% of the
G2
duration of cell cycle)
 Interphase is the resting MITOTIC

phase.
 It is the time during which the
cell preparing for division.
 Cell growth & DNA replication
occurs.
 It is the phase between successive 2 mitotic divisions.
1) G1 phase:-
 G1 phase is the interval between mitosis and initiation of DNA replication(s phase).
 During this phase the cell is metabolically active and continuously grows but doesn't
replicate its DNA.
 Synthesis of nucleotides RNA, amino acids, enzymes, ATP for DNA replication.
 G1 phase is the longest phase of the cell cycle.

2) S phase:-
 S phase is phase or synthesis phase where DNA synthesis or replication takes place DNA
is doubled but chromosome number is not doubled.
 During this phase the DNA Mount are doubled per cell. If the initial amount of DNA is to
2C then it increases to 4C.
 In animal cells centrosome or centriol duplicates.
 Histone proteins are synthesized.
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 3) G2 phase:-
 During G2 phase proteins are
synthesized in preparation for mitosis
while cell growth continuous.
 RNA and molecules are synthesized.
 Repair the damaging DNA.
 Synthesized the spindle fibers (tubulin
protein).

 G0 phase:-
The cell does not divide and exceed G1 face to enter an inactive stage called g0 phase or
quiescent phase stage. Cell remains metabolically active but no longer proliferates.

Example- liver cell, nerve cell

N.B.
N.B.
Animal mitotic cell division is only seen in the diploid somatic cells. In plants
can show division in both haploid and diploid cells.

2. M-phase or mitotic phase:-

a. The number of chromosomes in the parent and progeny cell is the same it is also called
equational division.
b. M-phase or mitotic phase consists of two types----

 Karyokinesis: - division of nucleus.

 Cytokinesis: - division of cytoplasm.

Karyokinesis is also divided into four stages---

I. PROPHASE
II. METAPHASE
III. ANAPHASE
IV. TELOPHASE
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 1. PROPHASE:-
 Prophase is the first stage of karyokinesis of mitosis.
 During this phase chromosomal material contains to
form compact mitotic chromosomes.
 Chromosome composed of two chromatid, attached
together at the centromere.
 Centrosome becomes duplicated during interphase
and begins to move towards opposite poles of the cell.
 Each centrosome radiates out microtubules called
asters. The 2 esters together with spindle fiber form mitotic
apertures.
2. Metaphase:-
 Metaphase is the second phase of Mitosis.
 Nuclear envelope is disintegrated completely during this phase.
 Condensation of chromosomes is completed.
 Metaphase chromosome is made up of two sister
chromatids which are held together by the
centromere.
 Small disc shaped structure at the surface of the
centromere are called kinetochores.
 Spindle fibers are attached to kinetochores of METAPHASE

chromosome that are moved into position at the centre of the cell.

 The plane of alignment of the chromosomes at metaphase is called metaphase plate

by specific movement called metakinesis.
 Chromosomes are moved to spindle equator and get aligned along metaphase plate
through spindle fiber to both poles.
3. Anaphase:-
 Anaphase is the third phase of Mitosis.
 When all chromosomes are attached to the spindle fibers anaphase starts.
 Centromeres split and chromatid separate.
 Chromatids moved toward the opposite pole called anaphase movement.

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 ANAPHASE
4. Telophase:-
 Telophase is the final stage of karyokinesis.
 Chromosomes reached to the poles and lose their
identity.
 Nuclear envelope is developed around the
chromosome at each pole, forming to daughter
nuclei. TELOPHASE
 Nucleolus, Golgi complex and ER is reformed.
 Karyokinesis is completed.

 Cytokinesis:-
 Division of cytoplasm called Cytokinesis.
 In animal cell cytokinesis is offered by
cleavage furrow.
 In plant cell it is acquired by formation of
cell plate that represents the middle
lamella between the walls of two adjacent
cells.
 When karyokinesis is not followed by Cytokinesis as a result multinucleate is formed
in a Cell, called syncytium. Example liquid endosperm in coconut.

Significance of Mitosis:-
 Mitosis results in production of diploid daughter cells with identical genetic
complement.
 The growth of multicellular organisms is due to Mitosis.
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  The ratio of nucleo cytoplasm is restored during mitosis cell division.
 Cell is repaired by mitosis cell division.
 Mitotic divisions in the Meristem tissue - the apical and the lateral cambium result in
a continuous growth of plants throughout their life.

FIG: - COMPARISION BETWEEN 4 STAGES INCLUDING CYTOKINEIS.

Meiosis:-
Cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half results in the production of haploid
daughter cell called meiosis.

Key features of meiosis:-

 Meiosis involves 2 sequential cycle of nuclear called meiosis 1 and meiosis 2 but only a
single cycle of DNA replication.

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  Meiosis involves pairing of homologous chromosomes and recombination between non-
sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes.
 Four haploid cells are formed at the end of meiosis-II.

MEIOSIS
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MEIOSIS-I INTERKINESIS MEIOSIS-II

1. PROPHASE-I 1. PROPHASE-II
 LEPTOTENE 2. METAPHASE-
 ZYGOTENE II
 PACHYTENE
3. ANAPHASE-II
 DIPLOTENE
4. TELOPHASE-II
 DIAKINESIS

2. METAPHASE-I
3. ANAPHASE-I
4. TELOPHASE-I

1. PROPHASE-I:-
Prophase is 1st meiotic division. It is also subdivided by 5 phases-

I. LEPTOTENE:-
 Chromosomes become gradually condense.
 Compaction of chromosome continues throughout leptotene.
 During this stage all chromosomes look like a bouquet and hence this phase is also
called bouquet phase according to Darlington.

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II. ZYGOTENE:-
 Chromosomes start pairing together, this process is called synapsis such pair of
chromosomes are called homologous chromosome.
 Chromosomes synapsis is formed a complex structure called synaptonemal complex.
These two homologous chromosomes are together called bivalent or tetrad.
III. PACHYTENE:-
 During this stage the four chromatids of each bivalent chromosomes becomes distinct
and clear.
 A number of electron dense bodies are found in this stage called recombination nodules
which helps in crossing over.
 In this stage crossing over occurs between non sister chromatids of the homologous
chromosomes. Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between two
homologous chromosomes.
 Crossing over is also enzyme mediated process and this enzyme called recombinase.
 Crossing over leads to recombination of genetic material on the two chromosomes.
Recombination is occurred between two homologous chromosomes.
IV. DIPLOTENE:-
 Synaptonemal Complex become disappear or dissolution.
 Recombination of homologous chromosome is separated from each other except site of
crossing over.
 After crossing over chromatids appear x like in the segment exchange region called
Chiasma.

N.B.
In oocyte of some vertebrates, diplotene can last for month or years.

V. Diakinesis:-
 Termination of Chiasma is completed.
 Chromosomes become more condensed.
 Meiotic spindle is assembled to prepare the human chromosome for separation.
 Nucleus disappears and nuclear envelope breaks down.

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 Diakinesis represents transition to metaphase.

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2. Metaphase-I :-
 The bivalent chromosomes align on the equatorial plate.
 Spindle fibers attached to the kinetochores of homologous
chromosomes.

3. Anaphase-I :-
 The homologous chromosomes separate (disjunction).
 Intact chromosomes move toward respective pole due to
dissolution of spindle fiber.

4. Telophase-I :-
 Movement of chromosome is terminated when reach to
the pole.
 Decoiling of chromosome takes place so that they appear
filamentous.

 The nuclear membrane nucleolus reappears.

1. Prophase 2:-
 Nuclear membrane is present.
 Chromosomes again become compact.
 End of prophase 2, nuclear membrane disappears.

2. Metaphase 2:-
 Chromosomes align at the equator.
 Spindle Apparatus attached to the
kinetochores of sister chromatids.

3. Anaphase 2:-
 Centromere splits.
 Chromatids move towards the pole.
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4. Telophase 2:-
 Single chromatids of all chromosomes attached to the pole.
 Nucleus and nuclear membrane disappears.
 4 haploid daughter cells are formed and karyokinesis
completed.

Significance of meiosis
 Meiosis is the process by which conversion of specific chromosome number of each
species occur.
 It results in reduction of chromosome number by half.
 It increases the genetic variability population of organisms from one generation to next
generation.
 Variations are important for the process of evolution.

FIG:- STAGES OF MEIOSIS

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CHART FOR COMPARISION B\W MITOSIS & MEIOSIS

 Ribosome:-
 In prokaryotic, three types of RNA found in ribosome-5S, 16S and 23S.
 In Eukaryotic ribosome four types of RNA found- 5S, 5.8S, 28S and 18S.

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  Karyotype :-
Number of chromosome is constant in all the member of a species called karyotype.

Example:-
 Aaulacantha(2n=1600)
 Ascaris megulocephala (2n=2)
 Human (2n=46)
 Gorilla (2n=48)
 Rabbit (2n=44)

 Idiogram:-
The chromosomes are named as number according to size. The presentation of the size from
larger to smaller is called Idiogram.

 APC (anaphase promoting complex):

Separates the two chromatids of the chromosome through dissociation of cohesin protein.

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14
MITOSIS & MEIOSIS DIAGRAMS

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 CELL DIVISION MATHS

1. How many mitotic divisions are needed for a single cell to make 128
cells?
2. A cell’s division time is 1 minute. In 20 minutes, a culture tube is 1/8th
filled with cells. When the tube will be fully filled?
3. If a bacteria divides in one minute and the cup is full in 60 minutes. At
what time cup will be 1/4th filled?
4. What will be the number of chromosomes and amount of DNA
respectively in diploid cell undergoing meiotic division at the end of
meiotic-I? a. n&c b. n&2c c.2n&2c d.2n&4c
5. What will be the number of chromosomes and amount of DNA
respectively in a diploid cell undergoing mitotic division at the end
of‘s’- phase of interphase? a. n&c b. n&2c c. 2n&2c d. 2n&4c
6. An anther has 1200 pollen grains. How many PMCs must have been
there to produce them?
7. How many meiotic divisions are required to produce 400 pollen
grains?
8. How many meiotic divisions are required 200 seeds?
9. What will be the total number of mitotic division in the formation of 64
daughter cells? a.6 b.32 c. 63 d. 16
10. If there are 30 chromosomes in G1 phase then what will be the
number of bivalent in zygotene? a. 30 b.15 c. 45 d.60
11. What will be the amount of DNA in meiosis-II product if meiocyte
contains 30PG DNA in G-phase? a. 30PG b. 60PG c. 15PG d.120PG
12. How many meiotic divisions are required to produce 100 pollen
grains? a.25 b.50 c.100 d.125
13. Number of bivalents are 8 in prophase-I. What is the number of
chromosomes during anaphase-II? a.16 b.4 c.13 d.32
14. Bacterium divides in every 35 minutes. If a culture contains 105
cells per mL is grown for 175 minutes, what will be the cell

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 concentration per mL after 175 minutes? a.5 X 105 b.35 x105 c.32 x
105 d.174 x 105
15. A cell’s generation time is 1 minute. In 20 minutes a culture
medium is 1/8th filled with cells. When the test tube will be fulfilled?
a.21 mins b.23mins c.60mins d.160mins
16. W.O.f number of cells can be exported from the human cell
culture after 70 hours? a.4 b.8 c.both ’a’&’b’ d.2
17. A person forgot to take reading his cell culture data. Now he
needs to conclude among the plate ‘A’ and plate ‘B’ with 16 & 128
cells respectively. Which plate has growth of more than 9 hrs and
which plate is growth less than 9 hrs if they were yeast cells? a. A
with>9hrs b. B with>9hrs c. A does not show yeast culture d. b
with<9 hrs
18. A person forgot to take reading his cell culture data. Now he
needs to conclude among the plate ‘A’ and plate ‘B’ with 16 & 128
cells respectively. By counting the number of cells in plate ‘B’ he
deduces the number of division yeast cells must have undergone in
plate B?
a. 127
b. 5
c. 3
d. 7
19. How many tetrads are found in meiotic prophase in an organism
with 2n=12?
a. 6
b. 18
c. 24
d. 12
20. Fruit flies have 2n=8. How many chromosomes will be there in
tetrad of cells?
a. 4
b. 8
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 c. 16
d. Both a & b
21. In human there is 23 bivalents in metaphase-I. What will be the
number of chromosomes in daughter cells after meiosis-I & ‘-II?
a. 46&46
b. 92&46
c. 23&23
d. 46&23
22. If mitotically dividing diploid cell has initial number amount of
DNA 5PG in G1 phase, that he distributed among its 8 chromosomes
then which is correct?
a. G2 phase – 16 chromatids with 10 PG of DNA
b. Late prophase nucleus – 4 chromatids with 10 PG DNA
c. Anaphase cell – 16 chromatids with 10PG DNA
d. S phase – 4 chromatids with 2.5 PG DNA
23. Cell of certain of animals have six pairs of chromosomes. How
many molecules of DNA will remain in a nucleus of those animals
during G2 phase?
a. 12
b. 48
c. 6
d. 24

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FREE HAND DIAGRAMS FOR BETTER
UNDERSTANDING

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Thank you.
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