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CLASS -X : LIFE SCIENCE STUDY MATERIAL

Cell division

The sequences of events by which a cell duplicate its genome, synthesis the other constituents
of cells & eventually divided in to daughter cells is termed as cell-cycle.

Phases of Cell cycle: -

A typical eukaryotic cells divide once in approximately every 24hrs. Duration of cell cycle
vary from organism to organism.

Phases of cell cycle Inter phase

M phase

M phase represent actual cell division or mitosis occurs and inter phase is duration

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between two successive M phase interphase lasts more than 95% part of cell cycle.

M phase start with nuclear division corresponding to separation of daughter

chromosome Karyokinesis and usually ends with division of cytoplasm Cytokinesis.

Interphase is preparing phase for cell growth & DNA replication interphase divided in to
3 phase

1. 𝑮𝑮𝟏𝟏 Phase: - correspond to the interval between mitosis and initiation of DNA
replication.

2. 𝑺𝑺 Phase: - period during DNA synthesis take places amount of DNA per cell doubles.

3. 𝑮𝑮𝟐𝟐 Phase: - 𝐺𝐺2 phase proteins are synthesized in preparation for mitosis while cut
growth continues
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𝑮𝑮𝟎𝟎 Phase quiescent phase

Cells in this stage remain metabolically active but no longer proliferate unless called on
to do so depending on the requirement of organism.

M phase: -
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This phase involving a major organisation of virtually all components of cells. The no of
chromosome of parent and progeny.

Cells are same it is so called equational division.

2n

2n

2n

Mitosis
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Prophase: -

Prophase is marked by initiation of condensation of chromosomes material. The

chromosome material becomes untangled during process of chromatin condensation.

1. Chromosome materials condense to form compact mitotic chromosome.

Chromosomes are seen to be composed of two chromatids attached together at the
centromere.

2. Initiation of assembly of mitotic spindle. Micro tubules the proteinaceous

components of cell cytoplasm help in process.

3. Cell at the end of prophase do not show Golgi complex, ER, nucleolus and nuclear
envelop.

Metaphase: -

The complete disintegration of nuclear envelops.

microscope.
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 By this stage chromosome condensation complete they can clearly seen under

 Made of sister chromatids which are held together with centromere small disc
shaped structure at the surface of centromere all called as kinetochores.

This structure site of attachment of spindle fiber to the chromosome that are moved
in to position at the centre of cell.

Meta phase characterized by all the chromosome coming to lie to equator with one
chromatids of each chromosome connected by its kinetochores to spindle fibers
from one pole and its sister chromate connected by its kinetochoras to spindle fiber
from opposite pole.

 The plane of arrangement of chromosome at metaphase is reffered as the meta

phase plate.
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Anaphase: -

At the onset of anaphase. Each chromosome arranged at the metaphase plate is split
simultaneously and two daughter chromatids now referred to as chromosomes of the3
future daughter cell nuclei, begin then migration toward the opposite poles.
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Telophase: -

1. Chromosome cluster at opposite spindle poles and their identity is lost as discrete
element.

2. Nuclear envelop assemble around the chromosome cluster.

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3. Nucleolus Golgi complex ER reform
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Cytokinesis: -

Cell itself divided in to two daughter cell by process Cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm)

In animal this achieved by the appearance of a furrow in plasma membrane.

Gradually this furrow deepened and ultimately joins the centre divide cell in to two
cells.

Significance of Mitosis: -

1. Mitosis usually result in production of diploid daughter cell with identical genetic
complement. Example – growth of multicellular organism

2. Cell repair

3. Somatic growth

4. Haploid cell also divided by this process.

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5. Cells upper layer of skin, inner layer of gut.

6. Division in meristematic tissue.

Meiosis gametes are formed from specialized diploid cells specialized division that
reduces chromosome no by half result in production of haploid daughter cell.

Meiosis ensures the production of haploid phase in life cycle of sexually reproducing org
whereas fertilization result diploid phase.

Meiosis І

Meiosis

Meiosis ІІ
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Meiosis І: - prophase 1 is first meiotic division is typical longer and more complex.

Sub divided in to 5 sub phase

1. Leptotene: - compaction of chromosome

2. Zygotene: - chromosome start pairing together this process of association called as

synapses. Such paired chromosome called homologues chromosome.

This complex is formed by pair of synapsed homologues chromosome called bivalent

/ tetrad.

3. Pachytene is longer compared to first two stages.

This stage characterized by appearance of recombination module the site at which

crossing over occur between non sisters chromatids of homologues chromosome,
crossing over is exchange of genetic material between two homologues
chromosome.

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4. Diplotene is recognized by the dissolution of the synapsonemal complex and
tendency of recombined homologues chromosomes of bivalent to separate from
each other except at the site of crossover.

X-shaped structures are called chiasmata.

In oocytes of some vertebrate diploeme can last for months or years.

5. Diakinesis: - terminalisation of chiasmata during this phase chromosome are fully

condensed and meiotic spindle is assembled to prepare the homologues
chromosome for separation.

Nucleolus disappears and breakdown of nuclear envelop.

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Meta phase І: -

Bivalent chromosomes align on the equator plate microtubules from opposite pole of
spindle attach to the pair of homologues chromosome.

Ana phase І: -

The homologues chromosome separate while sister chromatids remain attached with
centromere.

Telophase І: -

Nuclear membrane & nucleolus reappear Cytokinesis followed this called dyad of all.

Meiosis ІІ: -

Prophase ІІ: -

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Nuclear membrane disappears & chromosome again condensed.

Metaphase ІІ: -

At this stage chromosome arranged on equator microtubules from opposite pole of

spindle got attached to the kinetochore.

Anaphase: -

Simultaneous splitting of centromere of each chromosome allowing them to move

towered opposite pole of the cell.
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Telophase: -

Meiosis end with telophase ІІ in which two group of chromosome once again get

enclosed by nuclear envelop Cytokinesis followed resulting in formation of tetrad four

haploid cell.

Significance of Meiosis: -

1. Reduction of chromosome number by half.

2. Increase genetic viability in population of org. from one generate to the next.

3. Variation is the important for process of evolution.

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Cell Division

Q.1 Differentiate between mitosis & meiosis with respect to the following features.

Ans.

Mitosis Meiosis
In somatic cells of haploid as well as In reproductive cells of diploid organisms
diploid organisms only.
It produces two daughter cells It produces four daughter cells

It is completed in one division It is completed in two successive division

No synapsis takes place Synapsis occurs during prophase I.

Q.2 Define Mitosis.

Ans.

Q.3

Ans.
What is homologous chromosomes?M.C
The cell division leading to growth, development, repair & replacement is called Mitosis.

Pair of chromosomes which are exactly similar & bear same genes at same loci.

Q.4 What is Interphase? Mention 3 significant changes that occur in a cell during
Interphase.

Ans. In between two divisions, when a cell is resting or non-dividing the phase is called
Interphase. The three significant changes that occur in cell during interphase are:

1. Chromatin material duplicates

2. DNA is synthesized

3. Cell increases in size

Q.5 What is cell cycle?

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Ans. A cell cycle may be defined as the” Events in a cell by which there is an increase in the
mass & cytoplasmic components of cell; duplication of DNA; & then division of nucleus
& cytoplasm of the cell. Thus, a cell cycle extends from the time a cell is formed till the
time it completes division”.

Q.6 Which is the longest & the shortest phase of mitosis?

Ans. Prophase is the longest & Anaphase is shortest phase of mitosis.

Q.7 In which cell division, mitotic or meiotic, does crossing over take place?

Ans. First Meiotic Division

Q.8 Where does Meiosis occur in our body?

Ans. Meiosis occurs in the reproductive organs ( testis & ovary) of our body.

Q.9 Differentiate between the following.

1 Prophase and Metaphase

Prophase Metaphase
The chromatin material undergoes Chromosomes become still shorter &
condensation & changes into thread-like thicker due to the condensation.

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structures called chromosomes
Each chromosome has two thread-like
structures called sister chromatids, which
lie close to each other & remain attached
at a point called centromere.
As prophase advances, the chromosomes
become shorter & condensed
2. Bivalent and Tetrad
The chromosomes arrange themselves on
the equatorial plane in such a way that
their centromere lie on the equator &
arms face towards the poles.
Centromere of each chromosome is
attached by a spindle fibre.

Bivalent
The Pairing of homologous chromosomes
is known as synapsis & the pair is known as
bivalent.
The homologous chromosomes attract
each other & come to lie in pairs.
Tetrad
Each chromosome splits lengthwise into
two chromatids so that each homologous
pair now has four chromatids & is termed
as tetrad.
Chromosome continues to shorten &
thicken.
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Q.10 How do events of Cytokinesis differ in animal & plant cells?

Ans. In animal cells, a constriction appears in the plasma membrane. This constriction
deepens by the end of the telophase & in plant cells, a cell plate is formed in the centre
of the cell at end of the anaphase.

In animal cells, Cytokinesis starts from the periphery & proceeds towards the centre, but
in plant cells, Cytokinesis starts from the centre due to cell plate formation, & extends
towards the periphery.

In plant cells, no centrosome is there & asters are not formed. However, spindle
formation still occurs & the formed by microtubules.

Q.11 Given below is a diagrammatic sketch of an microscopic view of an animal cell.

1.

2.
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Name any one feature shown in the diagram, which indicates that it is an animal cell.

How many mitochondria are shown in it?

3. Give any two reasons why this is not a plant cell.

Ans. Presence of centrosome close to the nuclear membrane indicates that it is an animal
cell.

2. 3 mitochondria are shown in it.

3. This is not a plant cell because:

It does not have a cell wall.

It does not contain plastids.

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Q.12 Do you think the cells of an elephant would be larger than the cells of a rat? Explain.

Ans. No, this is not true. The sizes of the cell do not depend on the size of animal but the
numbers of cells vary. As the size of animal increases the number of cells present in its
body also increases.

Q.13 What is interphase?

2. Mention three significant changes that occur in a cell during interphase.

Ans. The resting phase or stage between two mitotic divisions is called interphase.

2. Three significant changes are :

1.

2.

3.
Chromatin material duplicates.

DNA is synthesized.

The cell increases in size.

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Q.14 Write few differences between Nucleus & Nucleolus.

Ans.

Nucleus Nucleolus
It is a large somewhat spherical body located Nucleus contains a dense body called
nearly in the centre of cytoplasm nucleolus.
It has nuclear membrane, filled with It is a part of nucleus.
nucleoplasm containing thread-like structures
called chromatin fibres.