MITOSIS

Why do cells divide?

1. Repair or Replacement 3. Growth and Development
❑ Intestinal cells have to be replaced as they wear out. ❑ Tadpole must make new cells as it grows bigger and more
2. Reproduction complex.
❑ Yeast cells need to reproduce to keep their population growing. 4. Maintenance of Surface Area to Volume Ratio

MITOSIS
 It is a type of cell division in which one cell (the mother) divides to produce two new cells (the daughters) that are genetically
identical to itself. In the context of the cell cycle, mitosis is the part of the division process in which the DNA of the cell's nucleus is
split into two equal sets of chromosomes.
 The “goal” of mitosis is to make sure that each daughter cell gets a perfect, full set of chromosomes. Cells with too few or too
many chromosomes usually don’t function well: they may not survive, or they may even cause cancer.
 Mitosis consists of four basic phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Some textbooks list five, breaking prophase
into an early phase (called prophase) and a late phase (called prometaphase).

WHY NOT INCLUDE CYTOKINESIS?

 Mitosis is karyokinesis then followed by cytokinesis (or simultaneously occurring during telophase).
 Karyokinesis is the process of dividing the nucleus. It is actually the whole process of mitosis.
 Cytokinesis is the process of dividing the cytoplasm. It completes the process of cell division resulting to two daughter cells.

PHASES OF MITOSIS
❖ Let’s start by looking at a cell right before it begins mitosis. This cell is in interphase and has:
o already copied its DNA:
o chromosomes in the nucleus which each consist of two connected copies, called
sister chromatids.
o Also made a copy of its centrosome so there are two centrosomes.

I. Prophase. In early prophase,

 The cell starts to break down some structures and build others up, setting the stage for division
of the chromosomes.
 The chromosomes start to condense (making them easier to pull apart later on).
 The mitotic spindle begins to form. The spindle is a structure made of microtubules, strong fibers
that are part of the cell’s “skeleton.” Its job is to organize the chromosomes and move them
around during mitosis. The spindle grows between the centrosomes as they move apart.
 The nucleolus a part of the nucleus where ribosomes are made, disappears. This is a sign that the nucleus is getting ready to break
down.
 Nuclear membrane disassociates into small vesicles. Membranous organelles fragment and disperse towards the periphery of
the cell.

II. Prometaphase. In late prophase (sometimes also called prometaphase),

 The mitotic spindle begins to capture and organize the chromosomes.
 The chromosomes finish condensing, so they are very compact.
 The nuclear envelope breaks down, releasing the chromosomes.
 The mitotic spindle grows more, and some of the microtubules start to “capture” chromosomes.

III. Metaphase. In metaphase,

 The spindle has captured all the chromosomes and lined them up at the middle of the cell, ready
to divide.
 all the chromosomes align at the metaphase plate
❖ Before proceeding to anaphase, the cell will check to make sure that all the chromosomes are
at the metaphase plate with their kinetochores correctly attached to microtubules.
Spindle checkpoint helps ensure that the sister chromatids will split evenly between the two daughter cells when they separate in
the next step. If a chromosome is not properly aligned or attached, the cell will halt division until the problem is fixed.
 Al of these processes are driven by motor proteins, molecular machines that can “walk” along microtubule tracks and carry a
cargo. In mitosis, motor proteins carry chromosomes or other microtubules as they walk.

IV. Anaphase. In anaphase,

 The sister chromatids separate from each other and are pulled towards opposite ends of the
cell.
 The protein “glue” that holds the sister chromatids together is broken down, allowing them to
separate. Each is now its own chromosome. The chromosomes of each pair are pulled towards
opposite ends of the cell.
 Microtubules not attached to chromosomes elongate and push apart, separating the poles and
making the c ell longer.

V. Telophase. In telophase,
 The cell is nearly done dividing, and it starts to re-establish its normal structures as cytokinesis
(division of the cell contents) takes place.
 The mitotic spindle is broken down into its building blocks.
 Two new nuclei form, one for each set of chromosomes. Nuclear membranes and nucleoli reappear.
 The chromosomes begin to decondense and return to their “stringy” form.

VI. Cytokinesis. Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm to form two new cells, overlaps with the final
stages of mitosis. It may start in either anaphase or telophase, depending on the cell, and finishes shortly
after telophase.
 Although the stages of mitosis are similar for most eukaryotes, cytokinesis is quite different for eukaryotes
that have cell wall.
 In animal cells, cytokinesis is contractile, pinching the cell in two like a coin purse with a drawstring. The
“drawstring” is a band of filaments made of a protein called actin, and the pinch crease is known as the
cleavage furrow.
 Plant cells can’t be divided like this because they have a cell wall and are too stiff. Instead, a structure called
the cell plate forms down the middle of the cell, splitting it into two daughter cells separated by a new wall.
 When cytokinesis finishes, we end up with two new cells, each with a complete set of chromosomes identical
to those of the mother cell. The daughter cells can now begin their own cellular “lives,” and – depending on
what they decide to be when they grow up – may undergo mitosis themselves, repeating the cycle.

MEIOSIS
 Sexual reproduction requires fertilization, the union of two cells from two individual organisms.
If those two cells each contain one set of chromosomes, then the resulting cell contains two sets
of chromosomes.
 Haploid cells contain one set of chromosomes. Cells containing two sets of chromosomes are
called diploid.
 The number of sets of chromosomes in a cell is called its ploidy level.
 To continue the reproductive cycle, the diploid cell must reduce its number of chromosomes sets
before fertilization can occur again.
 To achieve reduction in chromosome number, meiosis consists of one round of chromosome
duplication and two rounds of nuclear division.
 There are two rounds of division, the major process and the stages are designated with a “I” or a
“II”.

MEIOSIS I
o is the first round of meiotic division and consists of prophase I,
prometaphase I, and so on.

MEIOSIS II
o in which the second round of meiotic division takes place,
includes prophase II, prometaphase II, and so on.

MEIOSIS I
 The G1 phase, which is also called the first gap phase, is the first
phase of the interphase and is focused on cell growth.
 The S phase is the second phase of interphase, during which the
DNA of the chromosomes is replicated.
 Finally, the G2 phase, also called the second gap phase, is the third and final phase of interphase, in this place, the cell undergoes
the final preparations for meiosis.
 The two identical copies produced when chromosome is replicated in S phase – sister chromatids.
 Cohesin holds the chromatids together until their separation during anaphase II.
 The centrosomes, which are the structures that organize the microtubules of the meiotic spindle, also replicate. This prepares the
cell to enter prophase I, the first meiotic phase.

PHASES OF MEIOSIS I
I. Prophase I
 Nuclear membrane breaks down
 Centrosome and centriole begin to move
 Spindle fiber start to assemble
 The duplicated chromosomes condense a homologous chromosomes begin to pair up

II. Metaphase I
 Spindle fiber align the homologous chromosomes in the metaphase plate
 Each side of the equator has chromosomes from both parents
 To summarize the genetic consequences of meiosis I, the maternal and paternal genes are recombined by
crossover events that occur between non-sister chromatids of each homologous pair during prophase I.

III. Anaphase I
 Paired homologous chromosomes separate from each other and moves toward the opposite
side of the cell
 Sister chromatids remain attached

IV. Telophase I
 Spindle fibers disassemble
 Cytokinesis

WHEN DID THE CENTROSOMES DUPLICATE?

 In some organisms, the centrosomes duplicate between meiosis I and II,
even though DNA is not copied during this period. For instance, the
centrosomes duplicate between meiosis I and II during spermatogenesis,
sperm production, in humans. The diagram below, which shows two
centrosomes at the start of meiosis II, assumes that the centrosomes were
duplicated between meiosis I and II.
 In other organisms, however, the centrosomes do not duplicate at all
between meiosis I and II. Instead, the two centrioles that make up a single
centrosome separate, and each act as a separate spindle pole during
meiosis II. This pattern of centriole separation is seen in insect
spermatogenesis

PHASES OF MEIOSIS II
I. Prophase II
 The centrosomes and centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell and spindle fibers start to assemble
 Chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope breaks down

II. Metaphase II
 The chromosomes line up individually along the metaphase plate
 III. Anaphase II
 The sister chromatids separate and are pulled towards opposite poles of the cell.

IV. Telophase II
 Nuclear membranes form around each set of chromosomes, and the chromosomes decondense. Cytokinesis
splits the chromosome sets into new cells, forming the final products of meiosis: four haploid cells in which
each chromosome has just one chromatid. In humans, the products of meiosis are sperm or egg cells.

HOW MEIOSIS "MIXES AND MATCHES" GENES?

 The gametes produced in meiosis are all haploid, but they're not genetically identical. For example, take a look the meiosis II
diagram above, which shows the products of meiosis for a cell with 2n = 42n=42, n, equals, 4 chromosomes. Each gamete has
a unique "sample" of the genetic material present in the starting cell.
 As it turns out, there are many more potential gamete types than just the four shown in the diagram, even for a cell with only
four chromosomes. The three main reasons we can get many genetically different gametes are:
o Crossing over (prophase I). The points where homologues cross over and exchange genetic material are chosen more
or less at random, and they will be different in each cell that goes through meiosis. If meiosis happens many times, as
in humans, crossovers will happen at many different points.
o Random orientation of homologue pairs (metaphase I). The random orientation of homologue pairs in metaphase I
allows for the production of gametes with many different assortments of homologous chromosomes.
o Random fertilization.
 In a human cell, the random orientation of homologue pairs alone allows for over 8 million different types of possible gametes.
When we layer crossing over on top of this, the number of genetically different gametes that you—or any other person—can
make is effectively infinite.

SPERMATOGENESIS
Stages of Spermatogenesis
1. With the onset of puberty, when a boy is 11 to 14 years old, dormant, unspecialized
germ cells, called Type A (pale) spermatogonia
(Spermatogonium – singular), are activated by secretions of testosterone
2. Each spermatogonium divides through mitosis to produce two daughter cells, each
containing the full complete of 46 chromosomes.
3. One of the daughter cells is a spermatogonium, which continues to produce
daughter cells. The other daughter cell is a primary spermatocyte, a large cell that
moves toward the lumen of the seminiferous tubule.
4. The primary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis to produce two smaller secondary
spermatocytes, each with 23 chromosomes: 22 body chromosomes and 1 X or 1 Y sex chromosome
5. Both secondary spermatocytes undergo the second meiotic division to form four final primitive germinal cells, the spermatids,
which still have only 23 chromosomes.
6. The spermatids develop into mature sperm without undergoing any further cell division. Each sperm has 23 chromosomes. The
entire process of spermatogenesis takes about 64 days.

OOGENESIS
Stages of Oogenesis
1. The oogonium, the diploid precursor cell of the ovum, is enclosed in a
follicle within the ovary.
2. The oogonium develops into a primary oocyte, which contains 46
chromosomes. The primary oocyte undergoes meiosis, which produces
two daughter cells of unequal size.
3. The large of the daughter cells is the haploid secondary oocyte. It is
perhaps a thousand times as large as the other cell and contains most
of the primary oocyte’s cytoplasm, which provides nourishment for the
developing ovum.
4. The smaller of the two daughter cells is the first polar body. It may divide again, but eventually it degenerates.
5. The large secondary oocyte leaves the ovarian follicle during ovulation and enters the uterine tube. If the secondary oocyte is
fertilized, it begins to go through a second meiotic division, and a second polar body is “pinched off”. It too is destined to die. Its
fertilization does not occur, menstruation follows shortly, and the cycle begins again.
6. During the second meiotic division, the secondary oocyte is completely reduced to haploid number of 23 chromosomes and is
called ootid. When the haploid sperm and ovum nuclei are finally ready to merge, the ootid is considered to have reached its
final stage of nuclear maturity as a mature ovum.
7. The haploid nuclei of the ovum and sperm unite, in a process called fertilization, to form diploid zygote.
 SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS FOR SEXUAL REPRODUCTION:
 Mitosis is important for sexual reproduction indirectly. It allows the sexually reproducing organism to grow and develop from a
single cell into a sexually mature individual. This allows organisms to continue to reproduce through the generations.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS AND CHROMOSOME NUMBER:

 Chromosomes are the cell's way of neatly arranging long strands of DNA. Non-sex cells have two sets of chromosomes, one set
from each parent. Meiosis makes sex cells with only one set of chromosomes. For example, human cells have 46 chromosomes,
with the exception of sperm and eggs, which contain only 23 chromosomes each. When a sperm cell fertilizes an egg, the 23
chromosomes from each sex cell combine to make a zygote, a new cell with 46 chromosomes. The zygote is the first cell in a new
individual.

Why not include cytokinesis?

• Mitosis is karyokinesis then followed by cytokinesis (or simultaneously occuring during telophase).
So what’s the difference?
• Karyokinesis is the process of dividing the nucleus. It is actually the whole process of mitosis.
• Cytokinesis is the process of dividing the cytoplasm. It completes the process of cell division resulting to two daughter
cells.

Why supercoil chromosomes?

• Human cells are on average 10μm in diameter and the nucleus within each
is less than 5 μm in diameter.
• Human chromosomes are measured to be 15mm to 85mm (15,000μm to
85,000 μm).
• Chromosomes need to be stored compactly to fit within the nuclei of cells.
This problem becomes more acute during mitosis when chromosomes need
to be short and compact enough that they can be separated and moved to
each end of the cell.
• Strain is placed on a DNA helix by overwinding or underwinding of the helix.
• This causes the DNA molecule to coil back on itself becoming shorter and
wider.

SPINDLE ANATOMY
• Microtubules can bind to chromosomes at
the kinetochore, a patch of protein found on the
centromere of each sister chromatid.
• Centromeres are the regions of DNA where the
sister chromatids are most tightly connected.
• The proteins of kinetochore attract and bind with
the mitotic fibers. As the spindle microtubules
extend from the centrosome. Some of this bind
firmly with the kinetochores. Oriented until the
kinetochore face the poles.
• Microtubules that bind a chromosome are called kinetochore microtubules.
• Microtubules that don’t bind to kinetochores can grab on to microtubules from the opposite pole, stabilizing the
spindle. And aids in cell elongation.
• They are called polar microtubles.
• More microtubules extend from each centrosome towards the edge of the cell, forming a structure called the aster.
• Called astral microtubules, aid in spindle orientation and are required in regulation of mitosis.

What will happen if there is no spindle checkpoint?

The spindle checkpoint is a surveillance mechanism that delays anaphase onset until all chromosomes are correctly
attached in a bipolar fashion to the mitotic spindle.

ERRORS IN MITOSIS
ANEUPLOIDY
 • Errors in the cell division is generally due to the non-disjunction
of chromosomes or sister chromatids and may result to
chromosomal mutation.
• Nondisjunction occurs when chromosomes do not separate
properly during cell division. This produces cells with
imbalanced chromosome numbers.
• This error is a gain or loss of whole chromosome.
MOSAICISM
• Mosaicism is the consequence of mitosis passing on the
mutation to some cells. It is a condition where some cells in the same individual have a mutant version of a gene
while other cells in the same individual have a mutant version of the same gene.
• This is because only the cells produced from the errant cell will have the mutation. And mostly, it happens during
fetal development. Diseases linked to it are hemophilia, and Marfan syndrome, usually have long limbs.
CANCER
• Another disease related to errors is cancer. Cancer is the uncontrolled cell division.

Sexual reproduction requires fertilization, the union of two cells from two individual organisms. If those two cells each
contain one set of chromosomes, then the resulting cell contains two sets of chromosomes.
• Haploid cells contain one set of chromosomes.
• Cells containing two sets of chromosomes are called diploid.
• The number of sets of chromosomes in a cell is called its ploidy level.
• Everyone came from union of spermatozoa and ovum – FERTILIZATION
• *23 chromosomes from sperm
*23 chromosomes from ova
= 46 diploid chromosomes (2n)
• Zygote
- fertilized egg
- first diploid cell of new individual
• Sex chromosome X or Y ^^ XY XX
• Autosome – 44
• Synapsis - pairing of Homologous chromosome
• In addition to fertilization, sexual reproduction includes a nuclear division that reduces the number of chromosome
sets.
Haploid cells, containing a single copy of each homologous chromosome, are found only within structures that give rise to
either gametes or spores.
Spores are haploid cells that can produce a haploid organism that will produce gametes that fuse with other gametes to
form a diploid cell.
The starting nucleus in meiosis is always diploid and the nuclei that result at the end of a meiotic cell division are haploid.
As you have learned, mitosis is the part of a cell reproduction cycle that results in identical daughter nuclei that are also
genetically identical to the original parent nucleus. In mitosis, both the parent and the daughter nuclei are at the same
ploidy level – diploid for most plants and animals.
To achieve reduction in chromosome number, meiosis consists of one round of chromosome duplication and two rounds of
nuclear division.
There are two rounds of division, the major process and the stages are
designated with a “I” or a “II”.
– Meiosis I, is the first round of meiotic division and consists
of prophase I, prometaphase I, and so on.
– Meiosis II, in which the second round of meiotic division
takes place, includes prophase II, prometaphase II, and so
on.
– Overview of meiosis: how meiosis reduces chromosome
number.
Synapsis - the process of linking of the replicated homologous chromosome
Bivalent is the homologous bivalent pair
Tetrad- 4 sister chromatids inside the homologous chromosome pair

Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between non-sister chromatids of

homologous chromosomes during meiosis, which results in new allelic combinations in the
daughter cells.
The cross over events are the first source of genetic variation in the nuclei produced by
meiosis.

Recall that homologous chromosomes are not

identical.
Homologous chromosomes are two pieces of
DNA within a diploid organism which carry the
same genes, one from each parental source.

HOW DO SEX CHROMOSOMES CROSS OVER

DURING MEIOSIS?
Karyotype - method of organizing the
chromosome of a cell in relation to number, size
and type
crossing over of sex chromosomes in males
since, males have one copy of X chromosome
and one copy of Y chromosome unlike females who have two copies of X chromosomes (in which case crossing over will
take place the usual way) since you need two homologous sequences for crossing over to take place. The X and Y
chromosomes have homologous sequences called pseudoautosomal regions(PAR1, PAR2 and PAR3) and crossing over
is restricted to these regions.

This randomness is the physical basis for the creation of the

second form of genetic variation in offspring.
Metaphase I
- shortest phase
- in terms of independent assortment, a human male could
produce 8 million + combinations
Formula:
Homologous chromosome:
2n - 46 n = 23
2^23 = 8 million + combinations
GAMETOGENESIS
Gametogenesis
- is the process by which gametes or reproductive cells are formed by meiotic division.
Two types of Gametogenesis:
1. Spermatogenesis (sperm cell formation)
2. Oogenesis (ovum/egg cell formation)

Oogenesis
- each egg begins oogenesis as a primary oocyte. At birth each
female carries a lifetime supply of developing oocyte, each of
which is in prophase I. A developing egg secondary oocyte is
released each month for puberty until menopause, a total of 400-
500 eggs

Spermatogenesis
- sperm production begins at puberty and continues throughout life,
with several hundred million sperms produced each day. Once sperm
form, they move into the epididymis, where they mature and stored

VARIATION
- important to population as th raw material for natural selection
The sexual sources of Genetic Variation:
1. Crossing over (prophase I)
2. Independent Assortment (metaphase I)
3. Random Fertilization
What are phospholipids?
• One of the main components of membranes are phospholipids, a
type of lipid made from two fatty acid chain ‘tails’ attached to a
phosphate group ‘head’.
• The phosphate group head is polar and hydrophilic (‘water-
loving’), while the fatty acid chains of the tail are nonpolar and
hydrophobic (‘water-hating’).
• The shape of the structures that phospholipids form is due to their
polar nature, and the way they interact with water.
• Lipids make up around 45% by mass of a cell membrane.
Phospholipids in water
• When exposed to water, phospholipids form one of two
structures: a micelle or a bilayer.
• In each structure, the hydrophilic heads face the water, and the
hydrophobic tails point inwards away from the water.
• This behavior is key to the role that phospholipids play in
membranes.
• Phospholipid synthesis occurs primarily in the endoplasmic
reticulum. Other areas of biosynthesis include the Golgi apparatus
and mitochondria. Phospholipids function in various ways inside
cells.
• amphipathic nature (containing both hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups)

Phospholipids in membranes
• The role of phospholipids in membranes is to act as a barrier to most substances, helping control what enters/exits the
cell.
• Generally, the smaller and less polar a molecule, the easier and faster it will diffuse across a cell membrane.
o Small, nonpolar molecules such as oxygen and carbon dioxide rapidly diffuse across a membrane.
o Small, polar molecules, such as water and urea, also diffuse across, but much more slowly.
o Charged particles (ions) are unlikely to diffuse across a membrane, even if they are very small.
• One end of the molecule has a phosphate group and one alcohol; this end is polar, meaning it has an electric charge and
attracts water (hydrophilic). On the other hand, fatty acids are neutral; they are hydrophobic and water-insoluble, but fat-
soluble.

Cholesterol in cell membranes

• Cholesterol is a type of lipid with the molecular formul a C27H46O.
• Cholesterol is very important in controlling membrane fluidity. The more cholesterol, the less fluid
– and the less permeable – the membrane.
• Cholesterol is also important in keeping membranes stable at normal body temperature – without
it, cells would burst open.
• The phospholipid bilayer formed by these interactions makes a good barrier between the interior
and exterior of the cell, because water and other polar or charged substances cannot easily cross
the hydrophobic core of the membrane.
• Lipids are a class of biomolecules. There are various types of lipids found in living organisms such
as wax, fats, steroids, glycerides, phospholipids and fat soluble vitamins etc.
• Among the various lipid sub classes found inside our body, there is a class of lipids called
glycerides. Glycerides could be e ither, monoglycerides, diglycerides or triglycerides
depending on the number of fatty acid chains present in one fat molecule. Fats are the
common name given to triglycerides.
• Cholesterol has the capacity to fit in spaces in the middle of the phospholipids and prevent
the diffusion across the membrane of water-soluble molecules, thus reducing the
permeability of the membrane.
• Without the presence of cholesterol, phospholipids could either separate from each other,
leaving huge gaps and thus permitting the passage of unwanted substances, or get closer to
gether and prevent the passage of important substances such as gases or other small molecules.
• When the temperature rises cholesterol diminishes membrane fluidity by pulling phospholipids together and increasing
intermolecular forces. On the other hand, when the temperature drops, cholesterol increases fluidity by keeping
phospholipids from packing together.

Proteins in membranes
• Proteins typically make up 45% by mass of a cell membrane, but this can vary from 25% to
75% depending on the cell type.
• Integral (or intrinsic, or transmembrane) proteins span the whole width of the membrane.
• Peripheral (or extrinsic) proteins are confined to the inner or outer surface of the membrane.
• Many proteins are glycoproteins – proteins with attached carbohydrate chains.
 • Proteins typically make up around 45% by mass of a cell membrane, but this can vary widely depending on the cell type.
Students could be asked to discuss the nature of cell membrane proteins in terms of regions of polarity and nonpolarity.
For example, would the part of an integral protein embedded in the membrane be polar or nonpolar?

Neurotransmitters are the chemical messengers used by

the nervous system to transmit nerve impulse across the synapses while
hormones are the chemical messengers used by the endocrine system to
stimulate or communicate with specific targets cells.

Peripheral proteins
• Peripheral proteins may be free on the membrane surface or
bound to an integral protein.
• Peripheral proteins on the extracellular side of the membrane act
as receptors for hormones or neurotransmitters or are involved in
cell recognition. Many are glycoproteins.
• Peripheral proteins on the cytosolic side of the membrane are
involved in cell signalling or chemical reactions. They can dissociate from the membrane and move into the cytoplasm.

Carbohydrates
• Along with membrane proteins, these carbohydrates form distinctive cellular markers, sort
of like molecular ID badges, that allow cells to recognize each other. These markers are
very important in the immune system, allowing immune cells to differentiate between body
cells, which they shouldn’t attack, and foreign cells or tissues, which they should.

Membrane fluidity
• It is important that a cell membrane maintains its fluidity, or the cell will not be able to function.
o A fluid membrane is needed for many processes, such as:
o the diffusion of substances across the membrane
o the fusing of membranes, e.g. a vesicle fusing with the cell membrane during
exocytosis
o the ability of cells to move and change shape, e.g. macrophages during phagocytosis.
• Refers to viscosity of the lipid layer of the cell membrane
• At cooler temperatures, the straight tails of saturated fatty acids can pack tightly together,
making a dense and fairly rigid membrane.
• Phospholipids with unsaturated fatty acid tails cannot pack together as tightly because of the bent structure of the tails.
Because of this, a membrane containing unsaturated phospholipids will stay fluid at lower temperatures than a membrane
made of saturated ones.
Factors affecting membrane fluidity
This activity assumes that students are familiar with the general structure of lipids, and the difference between saturated and
unsaturated fatty acid chains.