1| Compiled by Dr Ameer Suhail

ICAR ANIMAL SCIENCE

SHORT NOTES Part 1

BEFORE U GO

 Refer this notes only to brush up your knowledge

 If you really wish to get good marks refer ur notebooks first which
can be completed in a month. I vote for Tanuvas notes and it is
easily available.
 This notes contain many spelling and grammar mistakes as it was
created to brush up my knowledge
 Eventhough this note was created after referring textbooks , this
does not contain the whole portion of the subjects
 This note was written I in my on way and that may not be
understandable to u
 Some topics are neglected in this (such as physiology and lpm) as I
was confident in those .
 Part 2 of animal science short notes and veterinary science stream
will be uploaded soon
 Attend online practice exams
 Do mail @ ameersuhail07@gmail.com in case of any doubts

AGB
Unit of heredity ….gene

Genetics is the scientific study of heredity and variation

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Geno means to give birth by William bateson

Gene phenotype and genotype by William johansen

Father of genetics gregor johann mendel

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was one of the first to observe spermatozoa

Nicolas Hartsoeker produced an image of tiny men inside the sperm,

which he called " animalcule" or "homunculus

Binomial nomenclature Carl Linnaeus

acquired characters are inheritable, an idea also known as

Lamarckism….its called soft inheritance

modern evolutionary theory…charles Darwin….natural selection…

Regnier De Graaf is famous for having discovered the ovarian follicle

(which is named Graafian follicle in his honour).

The establishment of cell theory is generally attributed to Matthias Jacob

Schleide and Theodor Schwann

Cell nucleus Robert brown

Friedrich Leopold August Weismann proposed the theory of the

continuity of the germplasm and predicted the reduction division of the
chromosomes during the formation of the germ cells. He proposed the
germ plasm theory, according to which (in a multicellular organism)
inheritance only takes place by means of the germ cells -the gametes
such as egg cells and sperm cells.

Walter Flemming used the term chromatin for the nuclear substance and
coined the term mitosis.

Heinrich W.G. Waldeyer introduced the term chromosome

Wilhelm L. Johannsen introduced the term gene to replace older terms

like factor, trait, and character. He coined the terms phenotype and
genotype
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established the chromosome theory of heredity and also discovers the

first sex-linked lethal gene ………….thomas hunt morgan …with
drosophila…

George Wells Beadle and Edward Lawrie Tatum proposes the one gene -
one enzyme (polypeptide) concept

Oswald Theodore avery DNA

Francis Crick, James D. Watson and Maurice Wilkins ……….molecular

structure of nucleic acid

Har Gobind Khorana and Nirenberg …..GeneticCode

Human Genome project….13 year old…1988

Compound microscope…zakarias jansen

Cell contents are called the protoplasm.

Genes reside in cell nucleus.

Robert hooke…cell….cell structure….malpigi….

Animal cell don’t have cell wall…hence diversified….organells are special

sub units with specific function and enclosed with its own
membrane.cells are bound using collagen…but pectin in fungal and
plants….anima cell have small varoule…

The cell membrane (also called the plasma membrane, plasmalemma,

or "phospholipid bilayer") is a double layer of phospholipids.
…..selectively permeable…

Cytoplasm….collective term for the cytosol(internal fluid) plus the

organelles and inclusions suspended within the cytosol

Centrioles…..they are arranges in perpendicular fashion to form

centrososme…plant centrosome don’t have centrioles…centrosome are
microtubule organising centers…MTOC…
During division of cells centrosome is also duplicated…The two
centrosomes move to opposite sides of the nucleus of the dividing cell
and from each centrosome, microtubules grow into a "spindle" which is
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responsible for separating replicated chromosomes into two daughter

cells. Thus each daughter cell inherits one centrosome.
Centriole is made up of ring of nine bundles of microtubules and each
bundle is composed of three microtubules

The Golgi body or dictyosome processes and packages the

macromolecules such as proteins and carbohydrates synthesized by the
cell into membrane - bound vesicles for cell secretion (exocytosis) or for
use within the cell …they contain membrane bound stacks called
cisternae..the secretory vesicles secrete neurotransmitters,hormones etc
after binding to cell membrane through porosome….and go out by
exocytosis.

The ER is a continuation of the outer nuclear membrane and provides a

pipeline between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. The space within the
ER is called the ER lumen which acts as a transport system for the cell.
SER involved in the synthesis of lipids and membrane proteins. The
function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum is to synthesize and export
proteins and glycoproteins.

Ribosomes are packets of RNA and protein that are sites for the
assembly of proteins in a process called Translation. Ribosomes are
classified as being either "free" (anywhere in the cytoplasm) or
"membrane-bound" (endoplasmic reticulum).

Mitochondria…cellular power plant,,,,,,double membraneos….inner

membrane is bounded and has projections called cristae…..inner
membrane space is called matrix…

Lysosome …cell vesicles” or "suicide-bags" or "suicide - sacs". contain

digestive enzymes necessary for intracellular digestion….. rare in plant
cells. …..digest excess or worn-out organelles, food particles, and
engulfed viruses or bacteria,

Peroxisomes contain oxidative enzyes break down organic molecules by

the process of oxidation to produce hydrogen peroxide,hence the name
and then quickly into water and oxygen. They break down fatty acids..

Vacuoles …digested plus waste materials…

Cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments,such as microtubules and

microfilaments and motor proteins in the cytoplasm that give shape to a
cell, hold and move organelles, and typically involved in cell movement
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Nucleus…coordinates cell activity such as division,synthesis etc…largest

organelle containing nucleolus….double membrane…also contains a
number of other non-membrane delineated bodies like Cajal bodies,
Gemini of coiled bodies, polymorphic interphase karyosomal association
(PIKA), promyelocytic leukaemia (PML) bodies, paraspeckles and
splicing speckles …liquid is called nucleoplasmmm….Nucleus contains
most of the cell's genetic material, double helix DNA molecules held in
complex with a large variety of proteins, such as histones, to form
chromosomes. ..
Nuclear envelope or membrane also known as the perinuclear envelope,
nucleolemma or karyotheca. The outer membrane is continuous with
the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
The space between the two membranes that make up the nuclear
envelope is called the perinuclear space (also called the perinuclear
cisterna). Nuclear Pores are formed at sites where the inner and outer
membranes of the nuclear envelope are joined.
The nucleolus is a membrane less organelle found in the nucleus, and is
sometimes called a sub organelle.all cells don’t have nucleolus.

Chromosome (chroma - colour; some - body) …

Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried Waldeyer coined the term
Autosomes control somatic characters…..sex chromosomes or
gonosomes insex determinatiom…two sex chromosomes or heterosome,
odd chromosome, or idiosome.
Female Birds are heterogametic..

Haploid cells (N) have only one copy of each chromosome. Eg

egg,sperm…
Cat Felis catus 38
Cattle Bos taurus, Bos 60
indicus
Dog Canis familiaris 78
Donkey Equus asinus 62
Goat Capra hircus 60
Horse Equus caballus 64
Human Homo sapiens 46
Pig Sus scrofa 38
Rabbit Oryctolagus 44
cuniculus
River buffalo Bubalus bubalis 50
(riverine type)
Swamp buffalo Bubalus bubalis 48
(swamp type)
Sheep Ovis aries 54
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Llama Lama glama 74

Mule (Hinny, hybrids of 63
horse and ass)
African buffalo or Syncerus caffer 52
Cape buffalo
Bison Bison bison 60

Pan troglodytes 48
Chimpanzee

Elephant Elephas maximus 56

(Asian) and Loxodonta
Africana (African)
Golden hamster Mesocricetus auratus 44
Gorilla Gorilla gorilla 48
Guinea pig Cavia cobaya 64
Hare Lepus nigricollis 48

Chicken 78
Gallusdomesticus
Domestic duck Anas 80
platyrhyncha
Emu Dromaius 80
novaehollandiae
Goose Anser anser 80
Guinea fowl Numida 74
meleagris
Japanese quail Coturnix 78
japonica
Muscovy duck Cairina 80
moschata
Ostrich Struthio camelus 80
Pigeon Columbia livia 80
Ring-necked Phasianus 82
pheasant colchicus
Turkey Meleagris 80
gallopavo

Drosophila 8….Pea plant….14

The DNA of eukaryotic cells is tightly bound to small basic proteins

(histones) that package the DNA in an orderly way in the cell nucleus.
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chromatin, which typically contains about twice as much protein as

DNA.
- H1, H2A, H2B, H3,
and H4 which are very similar among different species of eukaryotes.
Centromere or kinetochore is primary constriction….p or petite or small
arm…q arm is long….

The sequences at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes, called telomeres

A small chromosomal segment separated from the main body of the

chromosome by a secondary constriction is called Satellite
Chromosome thinnest plus longest in interphase or resting
phase….thickest and shortest in metaphase..
Central centromere metacentric….during anaphase its v shaped…..away
from middle….is submetacentric and j or L shaped in anaphase….toward
tip acrocentric…at tip telocentric…in both cases rod shaped,,,,,,

Other types based on numb of centromere…monocentric,

acentric,dicentric,polycentric

Morphology of somatic chromosomal complement of an individual is

called karyotype…
Avian karyotype is different from mammalian karyotype because of
presence of very small autosomes called microchromosomes.its
diagrammatic representation is called ideogram..

repeated rounds of DNA replication without any cell division (called

endoreplication

Polytene chromosomes or salivary gland chromosomes are giant

chromosomes happens due to endopelication common to many dipteran
(two-winged) flies salivary gland. Discovered by EG Balbiani… its
centromere is called chromacenter…mainly in larvae to promote growth..
Lampbrush chromosomes….
It consists of an axis from which paired loops extend in opposite
directions…eg Oocytes of amphibians and in some insects …they are
giant chromosomes…

B-Chromosomes (also called supernumerary chromosomes, accessory

chromosomes, accessory fragments, etc.) are without obvious genetic
function and usually have a normal structure, are somewhat smaller than
the autosomes.
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The chromosomes with a non-localized centromere are called as either

holocentric or holokinetic chromosomes

Duplication is replication…

Cytokinesis is the physical division of the cytoplasm whereby the nuclei,

cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane of a single eukaryotic cell is
divided into two daughter cells containing roughly equal shares.
Mitosis ….identical parent cell…grow and repair,,,,involves karyokinesis
and cytokinesis…
Meiosis…double cell division…

First phase…interphase..preperation phase….cell grows by protein

production and has high metabolic activity…..g1 gap S synthesis and G2
phases..
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G1…increases cell mass…longest…10 hr in 24 hr cell division…

S phase….dna and centromere replicated….5 hr..
G2 shortest…3 hr..
Prophase…nucleolus fades…chromatin condenses to
chromosomes..mitotic spindle appears as asters…centrioles moves to
opposite sides…nuclear envelope breaks..
Polar fibers, which are microtubules that make up the spindle fibers,
reach from each cell pole to the cell's equator. Chromosome begin to
migrate to center…
Metaphase…Chromosomes align completely at equatorial plane..nuvlear
membrane disappear fully..
Anaphase…the kinetochores separate and the paired centromeres in
each distinct chromosome begin to move apart to the cell poles
….each chromatids are called full chromosomes or daughter
chromosomes..

Telophase…Telo means end… encleavage furrow appears…nucleoli

(plural of nucleolus) and nuclei (plural of
Nucleus) reappear…nuclei form at two opposite poles….nuclear envelope
reformes….
Chromosome decondenses…

Cytokinesis,,,last stage…

Meiosis….The two stages of meiosis are Meiosis I and Meiosis II called

Reductional Division and Equational Division respectively. Before
meiosis q interphase which is similar to mitotic interphase…During
meiosis, the genome of a diploid germ cell undergoes two rounds of
division, resulting in four haploid daughter cells.
Meiosis I consist of four stages, Prophase I ,Metaphase I Anaphase I and
Telophase I.
Prophase 1…85 - 95 percent of the total time for meiosis

Prophase I can be broken down into 5 stages. Leptotene Zygotene

Pachytene Diplotene and Diakinesis

Leptotene or Leptonema Stage…..the chromosomes begin to condense.

A process called 'homology search' which precedes

Zygotene…or Zygonema….Homologous dyads (pairs of sister

chromatids) find each other and align themselves from end to end. This
pairing process is called Synapsis. Bivalent formation occurs which
equals to the number of haploid chromosomes..
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Pachetene…synapsis complete…….Recombination nodules (chiasmata)

appear ….crossing over happens…

Diplotene…..synaptonemal complex break down….Formation of tetrad….

Diakinesis…nuclear envelope breaks Down….centrioles migrate away to

two poles…

Metaphase 1….
Spindle fibre attaches to chromosome…Tetrads align at the metaphase
plate.
Anaphase 1…Chromosome moves to opposite poles..
During this stage, the original maternal and paternal chromosomes
separate, thereby reducing the number of chromosomes from 2N to N
number, yet the sister chromatids remain together

Telophase 1…Completion of Migration..Cleavage furrow appears….later

next stage cytokinesis happens…
Interkinesis (Interphase II) is similar to interphase except DNA
replication does not occur during this stage.
Meoisis 2 is similr to mitosis… Telophase 2 chromosomes are called
monads..

In Mitosis…no synapse or chiasmata formation occurs,,,,nor the crossing

over,,,

1N1C
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Golgi apparatus produces the acrosome containing enzymes and it takes its place
around the anterior end of the sperm head.

The polar bodies receive the same chromosome complement as the secondary oocyte
and ovum, but are not functional sex cells.

1
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Monohybrid cross: A cross involving contrasting expression of one trait

.Dihybrid: have two pairs of different characters.

Mendel’s first principle, the law of segregation, referring to the non-

mixing of alleles in the hybrid and their subsequent segregation or
separation in the gametes in equal frequencies,….Universally accepted
Law..,.

F2 Dihybrid Genotypic ratio

According to the Principle of Independent Assortment, different pairs of

alleles are passed to offspring independently of each other. But not
possible when there is linkage…

N is number of heterozygotes,,,,,No of gametic combination is the no of

zygots…

Back cross is a cross between F 1 hybrid and one of its homozygous

parents

Test cross is crossing of an incompletely known genotype to a genotype

which is homozygous, recessive at all the loci under consideration.

If the tested individual is heterozygous and the pairs of factors are

segregating and assorting independently then the following phenotypic
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ratio will be obtained. Mono hybrid test cross – 1 : 1 ……Di-hybrid test

cross - 1 : 1 : 1 : 1 ……Tri-hybrid test cross - 1 : 1 : 1 : 1 : 1 : 1 : 1 : 1

The result of an environmental influence, which mimics the effect of a

specific allele, is referred to as phenocopy. A phenocopy is a one-time
event affecting the phenotype but not causing any transmissible change
in the genotype.

In Incomplete dominanace(mirabilis) and in Codominaance phenotypic

monohybrid ratio is 1:2:1
If the heterozygote exhibits a mixture of the phenotypic characters of
both homozygotes, instead of a single intermediate expression, then both
alleles are called co-dominant alleles. Eg MN blood group in humans
,,,,,colour of shorthorn Catlle…

Genes which affect the viability as well as the visible traits of an

organism are called lethal genes and the phenomenon is called lethality.

The phenomenon of two or more genes governing the development of a

single character in such a way that they affect the expressions of each
other in various ways is known as Gene Interaction .
Allelic and Non Allelic Type…
Allelic gene interaction
Expression of character is produced by interaction between alleles of a
single gene.
Complete dominance Incomplete dominance Co-dominance Over
Dominance

NON allelic are of two types…inter allelic and intra allelic…in non allelic
gene interaction Expression of character is produced by interaction
between two or more genes.

Lethal Gene is Intra allelic….

Interallelic includes.. Complementary Gene Interaction ……

Supplementary Gene Interaction ….. Epistasis…. Duplicate Factor …..
Inhibitory Factor ….. Polymerism or Additive Factor
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Homozygous recessive lethal at either locus…1:2:2:4

Complete dominance at one locus and Incomplete dominance at another
locus (co-dominance)

EPISTASIS means standing upon…..When an allele of one gene masks

expression of alleles of another gene and expresses its own phenotype
instead ….The gene that is suppressed is called hypostatic and the
suppressor is called epistatic gene..

Recessive Epistasis or supplementary gene action

When one gene is homozygous recessive, it hides the phenotype of the
other gene.
( aa epistatic to B and b ) dihybrid..9;3;4….coat colour in rat….

Dominant Epistasis
When one gene is dominant, it hides the phenotype of the other gene.
( A epistatic to B and b ) 12:3:1,,,,,coat colour in dog..

Dominant and Recessive Epistasis ……..inhibitory gene action…

When either gene is dominant, it hides the effects of the other gene.
( A epistatic to B and b, bb epistatic to A and a, A and bb produce
identical phenotypes) 13;3…….anthyocyanin pigmentation in rice…

Duplicate Recessive Epistasis or complementary gene action

When either gene or allele is homozygous recessive, it hides the effect of
the other gene. 9;7…flower colour in sweet pea…

Duplicate Dominant Epistasis

When either gene is dominant, it hides the effects of the other gene.
15;1…..feather in shank…

Duplicate Interaction or polymeric gene action or additive

factors….when two genes are present together the action is enhanced
than one gene in recessive homozygous condition..9;6;1…..colour of
pig

Multiple alleles…..When more than two alternative alleles are

present for a gene.eg…colour of rabbit…total 6 alleles are there in
this case….agouti or full colour or brownish grey in wild type…
Silvery grey…mutant type…chinchilla
Another mutant Himalayan type…black at extremes with white
coat…this condition is called acro melanism …
Albino…lacks pigment…..so eyes are pink…another mutant…
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EG 2…NATURE OF WING IN DROSOPHILA

Eye colour in Drosophila….wild type …red…here many alleles
produce 1 phenotypic effect…..
Such types of alleles, which act within the phenotypic range of each
other, are called isoalleles.
ABO blood group Carl Landsteiner…located on chromosome 9…
IA and IB,are co-dominant and IO is recessive to both IA and IB
Universal recipient AB….donor….O……if rbc antigen is a…then
serum antibody is b……for AB no serum antibody…
Sometimes a and b antigens are also found in body fluids…and they
are called as secretors…

Rh factor,,,,,Landstiener..85% people are Rh positive…as they have

rh antigens..
haemolytic disease of the newborn called “Erythroblastosis foetalis”
is due to Rh antigens…….does not create a problem in first
pregnancy…

The numer of genotypes possible in a diploid organism with 'n'

different alleles is given by the formula [n(n+1)]/2.

Lethal Genes..
First in yellow mice by CUENOT

Semi dominant lethal: (Incompletely dominant lethal, intermediate

lethal) …creeper legs in poultry….
Achondroplasia in Dexter cows..
Dominant lethals kill the individual either in homozygous or
heterozygous conditions and therefore is eliminated from the
population in the same generation in which it
arises…Eg…humtington disease..

Recessive lethals kill only when in homzygous stage. They are very
difficult to eliminate from the population. Heterozygous carrier
parents that produce a lethal effect could be used as testers to
identify others in the population.

Intermediate lethal genes are much easier to detect because all the
individuals will exhibit some phenotypic expression of the gene.

Conditionally lethal,,,,normally no problembut when exposed to

certain set of conditions it becomes lethal..
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Sex linked lethal….hemophelia…the alleles responsible for

hemophelia are thus called semi lethal or sublethal gene because
they onlycause death of some individuals with affected genotypes…

Sex linkage refers to the association or linkage of a hereditary trait

with sex chromosomes ,,such triats are called sex linked
triats…,,most of the genes are assosciated with x chromosome as y is
smaller…

X linked disease…. These genes are associated with c chromosome

and absent in y chromosome. The characters are X linked characters
and their mode of inheritance is called X linked inheritance.occurs
more in males as they only fave one x chromosome…types X - linked
dominant, X-linked recessive or X - linked co dominant. …

X linked dominant…
In X-linked dominance, both males and females can display the trait
or disorder by having only one copy of the allele. Example :
Incontinentia Pigmenti (IP), X-linked hypophosphatemia, Fragile X
syndrome, Aicardi syndrome, Congenital hemidysplasia with
ichthyosiform erythroderma and limb defects (also known as
"CHILD syndrome"), Lujan–Fryns syndrome (LFS) also referred to
as X-linked mental retardation with Marfanoid habitus and Lujan
syndrome.
Eye colour in drosophila..F2 monohybrid 3;1

X linked recessive…
Since males have only one X chromosome, a single recessive allele on
that X chromosome will cause the disease. Females have two X
chromosome, so two copies of the recessive allele are required for the
disease to express in females …no father to son transmission…but
tranfers it to all daughtrs and are called as obligate carriers….
Transmission of the sex linked disease from affected males to male
grandchildren through carrier daughters is described as a "Nasse's
Law".

Sex linked traits in one parent passes to the opposite sex of the next
generation. This is known as “Criss Cross Inheritance”.
Example : Haemophilia, Color Blindness,
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X Linked Co Dominant….Tortoise shell cat….or calico…

Y linked Gene…Y chromosome carries a few genes with visible

effects, called holandric genes..transmitted to son only…EG,,,Hairy
pinna….
A histocompatability gene (H-Y) present on the short arm of human
Y - chromosome. Various failures in the SRY ( Sex-determining
Region Y ) genes.
.
XY linked inheritance…located in homologous sections of both X and
Y chromosomes. …eg…In Drosophila melanogaster - bobbed bristles,
Xeroderma pigmentosum, Nephritis, Retinitis pigmentosa,

SEX Linked recessive inheritance is more shown in

heterogametes…whereas sex linked dominant in homogametes..

birds, moths, butterflies, silkworm and in some fishes

……homogametic male…..
Autosexing is when pure bred day old chicks can be sexed by their
different appearances when they have hatched ….eg barring
pattern in plymoth rock…rapid and late feathering in hapshire

A trait which is influenced by th sex of the individual is called sex-

influenced trait.
Eg red and mahagony colour in ayshire cattle,,,,,,,,baldness in
humans…horns in sheep……the triats are carried on autosomes....

Reciprocal cross…here the sex of parent showing particular triat is

interchanged….this is to determine the role of parents in inheritance
pattern…

Triats that are limited to one sex is called sex limited triats…eg,,,milk
production ,egg production, secondary sexual characters………….cock
feathering …influenced by h allele…Hen feathering HH.

LINKAGE.
TH MORGAN…..The phenomenon of inheritance of linked genes in
same linkage group is called linkage. ….strength of linkage between
genes depended on the distance between them on the chromosome…
the number of linkage group in an animal or plant is equal to the
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haploid number of chromosomes present in one cell.

Complete linkage…only in male drosophila.closely situated genes..
Incomplete linkage…..they will not always stay together as
recombinants are produced during crossing over in meiotic
phase…so repulsion or trans configuration is also formed apart from
cis or coupling….
As age, temperature,radio active waves increase linkage decreases…

Genes are located in locus or loci…

Crossing over and independent assortments are two important

mechanisms for the generation of new combinations of genes …
Cytological evidence for crossing over……by stern

Crienghton observed linkage in maize…

After crossing over in meiosis terminalisation occurs which results in

breakage .. In a tetrad Each event of crossing over produces two
recombinant chromatids called as crossover chromatids and two
non crossover chromatids (original chromosomes).

Sinle cross over…here only one chiasma ia formed…

Double cross over....crossing over occurs at 2 points….so 2
chiasmata…
Two-strand double crossover occurs when both crossovers involve
the same two chromatids. Three-strand double crossovers are those
in which the second cross over involves one of the same two
chromatids as the first crossover plus one different chromatids
.Four-strand double crossovers occur when the second crossover
involves the two chromatids not involved in the first crossover

Another type is multiple Cross over…..

The maximum frequency of recombination that can result from
crossing-over between linked genes is 50 per cent.
Crossing over is less frequent near centromeres and the tips of the
chromosomes.

chiasma formation at one point prevents the chiasma formation in

the vicinity. This phenomenon is called Interference .
some chemicals decrease crossing over…colchicine.,selenium…some
increase..ethylmethane sulphonate…
Inversion of chromosome segments suppresses the crossing over
,,,inversion is the re arrangent of genes ,,,frequency of crossing over
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decrease with aging…high temp plus radiation increases crossing

frequency…

Gene mapping" refers to the mapping of genes to specific locations

on chromosomes. …2 types…genetic or cross over mapping or
linkage mapping using linkage analysis..percentage of crossing is
directly propotional to distance between genes…..If there is 1 percent
cross over then distance is equal to 1 Map unit or Morgan unit or
Centimorgan (cM).

If a F1 hybrid having the genotype (Ab)(aB) produces 8% of “AB” and

8% of “ab” cross over gametes, then the distance between “A” and
“B” is estimated to be 16 Map units or Morgan unit or Centimorgan.
If the map distance between the gene loci “C” and “D” is 10
centimorgan, then 10% of gametes of genotype (CD)(cd) should be
cross over types, i.e., 5% “Cd” and 5% “cD”.

The two genes which have highest percentage of crossing over should
be placed on each end …The interference is inversely proportional to
the crossing over percentage.

Physical or cytological mapping…using molecular techs..

1st gene mapping ….sturtevant…..

Coincidence …it is the ratio between actual cross overs and expected
cross overs…if actual cross over zero…coincidence zero…interference
complete..
Coincidence + Interference = 1.0 …interfence and coincidence is
inversely propotional….

Mutations are sudden heritable changes in a gene or chromosome,

involving qualitative or quantitative alterations in the genetic material
itself.
Term introduced by Hugo de Vries…
The rate of mutation is increased either by using physical or chemical
agents and this process is called as Mutagenesis . . An agent that has the
ability to produce mutation is called the Mutagen . . The mutability of
some genes is influenced by other genes called Mutator genes ..for
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fruitfly mutation rate is 1 in 1 lakh…In bacteria it is 1 in 1 lakh to 1 in 1

million..

DNA ;;adenine.;;guanine;;;cytocine;;;;thymine.;;.AT…CG
Forward mutation,,,mutation from wild to mutant…..its reversal is
called backward mutation or back mutation or reverse mutation or
reversion..
Two types of reversion,,,True reversion where there is reversion to
original genetic change,,
Suppression ….2 types…

mutation in a gene is suppressed by another mutation in the same gene.

In intergenic suppression a mutation in a gene is suppressed by another
mutation in the in different gene of the same chromosome or even in
another chromosomes gene.

Genes which suppress the activity of other mutated genes are called
suppressor genes

Another Classification …somatic and Germinal mutation…they have to

be dominant to cause a shift..

A and g are purines…normally keto forms of Thiamine and guanine and

amino forms of Adinine and cytosine occur and bond in this
fascion,,,,A;;T and C;;;G…but tautomerism can occur…The ability of a
molecule to exist in more than one chemical form is called tautomerism
…
The more stable keto forms of thymine and guanine and amino forms of
adenine and cytosine may infrequently undergo tautomeric shifts to less
stable enol and imino forms respectively. Hence different pairs like A
and C happens ….G and T pairing occurs..

Amino acid replacement types……Missense mutation….frameshift

mutation…nonsense mutation and silent mutation..
Mutations occurring at the first or second nucleotide position of a codon
is called Mis sense mutation
Any mutation that changes a codon into a codon that codes for a STOP
signal (termination codon) is called a Nonsense mutation
…UAA..UAG…UGA…

Any gene mutation which does not result in phenotypic expression is

called a Silent Mutation …eg…Mutation may occur in the third location
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of the codon, the resulting new codon may still code for the same amino
acid. Or in some cases mutations occur at places where it is no longer
functional…

Frameshift Mutation is a type of mutation caused by insertion or

deletion of a number of nucleotides in a DNA sequence that is not
divisible by 3

Mutagenesis is a process by which the genetic information of an

organism is changed in a stable manner, either in nature or
experimentally by the use of chemicals or radiation.
Mutation can be induced and spontaneous…under spontaneous it occur
naturally in cells….in induced case it is induced by mutagens…that can
be physical or chemicals…
This can be natural or man made…

Physical agents eg..radiation which are of higher energy and wavelength

less than 100 nm..they are of 2 types..
Ionizing radiations (X-rays, protons, neutrons, and alpha, beta and
gamma rays, 32P, 35S or Cobalt-90 ) and
Non-ionizing radiations (UV light). …low energy…penetrate only surface
layer..and no ionisation induced..they act by excitation…The maximum
absorption of UV by DNA is at wavelength of 260 nm. UV absorption by
pyrimidines results in pyrimidine hydrates ( example : Cytosine hydrate
) and pyrimidine dimers ( example: thymine dimer )

CHEMICAL MUTAGENS….
The first chemical mutagen discovered was mustard gas (sulfur
mustard). some
mutagenic only to replicating DNA such as acridine dyes ( which bind to
DNA and increase the probability of mistakes during DNA replication )
and base analogs ( which are incorporated into DNA instead of normal
bases ).the other type is
mutagenic to both replicating and non-replicating DNA, such as
alkylating agents ( that transfer alkyl groups such as CH3-, CH3CH2- etc
to DNA such as
nitrogen and sulfur mustards, methyl and ethyl methane sulfonate
(MMS and EMS ), nitrosoguanidine (NTG) ) and deaminating agents (
nitrous acid ).

Base analogues…
The pyrimidine 5-bromo uracil is a thymine analog. 5BU…it cause AT to
GC transition and GC to AT transition…
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The base 2-aminopurine is a purine analog ..adenine analogue…2AP

Acridine Dyes… proflavin, acridine orange and a series of compounds

called ICR170, ICR191 etc are powerful mutagens that induce frameshift
mutations…they produce kinks in Dna Double helix…

Deamenating Agents…nitous acid…

by the oxidative deamination of adenine, guanine and cytosine which
contain amino groups. Adenine is deaminated to hypoxanthine, which
base pairs with cytosine rather than thymine. Deamination of guanine
produces xanthine which pairs with cytosine just like guanine. So it is
not directly mutagenic. …It cause both At to GC and GC to AT
Deamination of cytosine results in uracil which pairs with adenine…. The
enzyme uracil-DNA glycosylase removes uracil from DNA creating an AP
site (apyrimidinic / apurinic site). Such AP sites undergo excision repair
…

MISCELLANEUS…Hydroxylating agents like hydroxyl Amine (NH2OH)

It hydroxylates amino group of cytosine to from hydroxylamine cytosine
which can base pair with adenine causing GC to AT transition. It only
cause GC to AT….

CIB technique is used in drosophila to find mutagenicity…..Attached X

chromosome method is also used in detecting sex-linked visible
mutation.

DNA repair Mechanism….by

Photo reactivation(they excise thiamine,cytosine, thiamine – cytosine
diamers….it occurs in light) , Excision repair or dark repair….thymine
dimers are removed from the DNA molecule and a new segment of DNA
is synthesized. , Post replication recombination repair…

Excision repair…happens in dark and in blue light…

First, an endonuclease recognizes the thymine dimer and cleaves the
phosphodiester bond near the site of damage. Then an exonuclease,
probably the 5’ 3 exonuclease activity of DNA polymerase-I removes a
segment of the strand adjacent to the endonuclease cut, including the
dimer. DNA polymerase-I then fills the gap using the complementary
strand as the template. DNA ligase then catalyses the formation of
phosphodiester linkage between adjacent nucleotides.
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Start codon AUG

POINT MUTATION or Gene Mutation…
gene or point mutation is defined as any permanent change in a DNA
sequence that makes up a gene …this occurs by base pair or nucleotide
pair substitutions..

Transition replacement of a purine in one strand of DNA with the other

purine
Transversion… Purine replaced by a pyrimidine, or pyrimidine replaced
by a purine.
8 different transversions and 4 transitions are possible….
Frame Shift Mutations…

Structural

Chromosomal

abberations

Numerical.(change in no of chromosome is called

ploidy) Euploidy ( changes in whole chromosome sets ) Aneuploidy ( changes in
parts of chromosome sets )

Monoploidy or haploidy

Euploidy diploidy

Polyploidy..more than two sets are seen..tri,penta ,

hexa etc Autopolyploidy...colchicine
can induce

Allopoly ploidy

in monoploidy or haploidy….individuals with normal one set of chromosomes are

called haploids..diploids with one set are monoploids,,,eg….ant …wasp ..male bee

Autopolyploidy….occurs when an individual has more than two sets of

chromosomes..both from same parental species…. Union of two diploid (
unreduced ) gametes - Tetraploid …Somatic doubling ( tetraploid )
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…Union of a haploid and a diploid gamete ( triploid ) ….A cross between

a tetraploid and a diploid parent ( triploid )
….Fertilization of an egg by two sperms ( triploid ) ,,,Autoploids with
even set of chromosomes can produce gametes,,,,but odd ones
cannot…eg..3n,5n….More seen in plants… Potato is a natural auto
tetrapolyploid ( 4n ). Autotriploids,,,,seedless watermelon grapes etc,,,

Allopolyploidy..when the individual has more than two copirs but from
different species…Does not occur naturally…

Aneuploidy….due to non disjunction of chromosomes…which means

failure in separation of chromasomes during anaphase resulting in
gametes with n+1 or n-1 chromosome number. This lates fertilises with n
to form 2n plus or minus 1
…monosomy occurs when one chromosome is lost from a pair…eg…2n-1
eg ..partial monosomy is found in cri-du-chat syndrome, which result
from loss of part of the short arm of chromosome 5. Mentally retarder
….cry as that of cat..
ving only
a single X chromosome (XO). Retarded…sterile…webbed feat…
Trisomy….2n +1 …there is trisomy of autosomes and sex chromosomes…

Trisomy of Autosomes..
Down syndrome (47, +21) or Trisomy 21 or 47,XX,+21 or 47,XY,+21
Trisomy 13 (Patau's syndrome) (47, +13) Extra fingers
…microphthalmia…cleft
Trisomy 18 (Edward's syndrome) (47, +18) ,,polydactyly,,,rocker bottom
feet..

Down syndrome…
also called Mongoloid idiots because their facial features resemble those
of Mongoloid race. In rare cases Down syndrome is also caused by a
Robertsonian translocation, which occurs when the long arm of
chromosome 21 breaks off and attaches to another chromosome at the
centromere …he or she become carrier of down syndrome..

Trisomy 18 (Edwards syndrome) is the most common autosomal

abnormality among live births after Down syndrome (trisomy 21).

Trisomy of sex chromosomes…..one chromosome x or y is added..

Triple X syndrome or trisomy X.. typically have tall stature by

adolescence ….
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phenotypically normal and fertile females

Jacob's syndrome or XYY Karyotype,47,XYY syndrome ,YY

syndrome…same as xxx females….taller than usual…

Klinefelters syndrome. XXY ….47,XXY….

Gynacomastia and infertility follows….

Miscellaneous…Nullisomy…Fail to survive…2n-2

Structural changes in chromosomes

Happens in a chromosome or both the chromosome…

Intrachromosomal Aberrations

o Interchromosomal Aberrations
location

DELETION…found by bridges..results in loss of genes from

chromosome…
Terminal Deletion and Intercalary / Interstitial Deletion
Eg..Cri-du-chat syndrome, which result from loss of part of the short
arm of chromosome 5
a deletion of a portion of long arm of chromosome 21 leads to chronic
myeloid leukemia in human beings

Chromosomes with a deletion cannot be reverted back….if centromere is

invoved in deletion organism die..
When a chromosome loses is genes and later combine with another
chromosome and shows dominance, then it is actually pseudo
dominance…

Duplication..
In a diploid organism, the presence of an additional chromosome
segment per nucleus is known as duplication ,,,less problematic when
compared to deletion..
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An altered phenotypic effect produced by change in position of a gene or

a group of genes is called position effect.

Inversion …An Inversion is a reversal in the order of a segment of a

chromosome within the chromosome, or a gene. Inversion suppress
crossing over..
Paracentric…if centromere not involved
Pericentric…centromere involved..

INTERCHROMASOMAL Aberations…
Translocation... Segment from one of two homologous chromosomes
breaks and binds to the other non-homologous chromosomes.
Non reciprocal..a part of one non homologous chromosome
transfer to
other …
Reciprocal… two non homologous chromosomes exchange
segments.

Non Reciprocal……Simple and shift type,,,,,

Simple…rare as the ends of cromosomes called as the telomeres are non
sticky in nature…this occurs by creation of a break at one end of the
chromosome and that part will join with another non homologous
chromosome..

Shift or intercalary chromosome translocation….this involves 3 breaks…

An interstitial segment of a chromosome is detached from it with the
help of two breaks and is inserted within the break produced in another
non-homologous chromosome.

In both cases the chromosome that loses the segment is called deficient
chromosome…

Reciprocal Translocation……two types …Homozygous or Heterozygous

type..

Homozygous…. In which both the homologous chromosomes exchange

parts with the two homologues of another pair of chromosomes…

Heterozygous… Are those involving only one member of each of the two
homologous pairs.
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Cytogenetics includes the study of normal and abnormal chromosomes,

and investigation of the causes of chromosomal abnormalities.
Staining methods …solid staining, G-banding
G banding examples… Quinacrine banding (Q-banding), Giemsa
banding (G-banding), Reverse banding (R-banding), C-banding and
Nucleolar Organizing Region stains (NOR stains).

Some denotations in karyotyping….

r…ring…dup….duplication…t
..translocation…del…deletion…inv..inversion…

Type of molecular evaluation of chromosome by FLUORESCENCE IN

SITU AND COMPARATIVE GENOMIC HYBRIDIZATION

Spectral karyotyping (SKY) is a laboratory technique that allows to

visualize all pairs of chromosomes in an organism at one time, with each
pair of chromosomes painted in a different fluorescent colour.

Extrachromosomal inheritance…by Correns

Some self replicating genes (DNA) are present in the cytoplasm

(mitochondrial DNA and chloroplast DNA) . These are called
plasmagenes or cytogenes or plasmids or plasmons etc. The inheritance
of characters by plasmagenes is called Non-mendelian or Extra-
chromosomal or Cytoplasmic or Extra-nuclear inheritance. They
doesn’t obey mendelian rule….the transfer mainly occurs through
ovum…….
Eg… Plastid inheritance in Mirabilis .. Shell-coiling in snail, Limnea
Peregra …. Kappa particles in Paramecium Auralia…(they have kappa
particle in cytoplasm which transfers killer genes upon conjugation to
new daughters…the one which don’t receive them are non killers and are
sensitive to killers) …Cytoplasmic male sterility in maize …Sigma virus
in Drosophila melanogaster .. Milk factor in mice ..

The determination of the phenotype of offspring by the genotype of

female parent is called maternal inheritance or uniparental inheritance
or maternal effect. ..Example: Pattern of shell coiling in snail.
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Gene Concept

Bateson had coined the term genetics

chromosome theory of heredity. By Thomas Hunt Morgan..

Avery, Macleod and McCarty ….DNA

James D.Watson and Francis H. C. Crick ,,,,Double Helix Str of Dna
"one gene-one enzyme" hypothesis was proposed by George Beadle and
Edward Tatum.

DNA is a ncleic acid and nucleotides are the building blocks.. The
structural unit consists of Pentose sugar (2’ deoxy ribose) phosphoric
acid and four nitrogenous bases: Purines- a double ring structure
Adenine (A) Guanine (G) Pyrimidines- a single ring Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
Base + sugar:::Nucleoside…phosphate grp is added to sugar to form
nucleotide..or nucleoside phosphate….nucleotides are named as dCMP.
dTMP..dGMP.. dAMP
The double helix measures 20Aº (2.0 nm) in diameter.

Chargaff’s rule …amount of thiamine and adine equal…nucleotides are

bonded by phosphodiester bond..
In each polynucleotide chain there are a 5’ phosphonyl group (5’-p) at
one end and 3’-hydroxyl group (3’-OH) at the other ..
Each chain makes one complete turn every 34 A0. The bases are spaced
at 3.4 A0 such that there are ten base pairs per helical turn. …AT double
bond…GC trible bond…
The major groove occurs where the backbones are far apart, the minor
groove occurs where they are close together
Coding sequence…exons….non coding…introns,,,,,they are removed by
splicing during protein synthesis….
Central Dogma DNA >RNA>Protein…this is unidirectional…..and
irreversible..
Mechanism by which gene express phenotype is gene expression…
Dna to mRNA by Transcription…mRNA is translated to protein in
ribosomes with help of tRNA…

Tri Hybrid Cross …. 27:9:9:9:3:3:3:1

Multiple allelism-more than two alternative form of a gene located on
the same locus of the homologous chromosome are known as multiple
alleles. Multiple alleles are found in the population, not in the single
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individual. ABO blood group in human(3 alleles); Coat colour in

Rabbit(4 alleles); Eye colour in Drosophila(15 alleles)
Pleiotropic gene: a gene with multiple phenotypic effects or a single
gene that controls more than one trait

muscling gene in cattle

POPULATION GENETICS….by JL Lush..

Members in population breed together..

Gene pool is defined as the sum total of genes present in a Mendelian
population
Gene flow is the transfer of gene from one to other..
Allele frequency is also called gene frequency…(p+q=1),,,,
During selection allele frequency shift to one direction…
Random mating is also called Panmixia..

HARDY- WEINBERG LAW

by Wilhelm Weinberg Godfrey Harold Hardy.
Both gene and genotype frequencies in a population remain constant
generation after generation when the population is large; mating is at
random and in the absence of selection and natural selection,genetic
drift,gene flow, mutation and migration. When this remain constant
the population is said to be in Weinberg equilibrium orgenetic
equilibrium….It is a non evolutionary model..

p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 …p is frequency of dominant gene,,,2PQ is frequency

of heterozygote or carriers…Q square is the frequency of recessive
homozygote…
For a single locus with two alleles: the maximum frequency of
heterozygote will be 0.5. Then p=q=0.5

In case of multiple alleles without dominance the law can be applied..

Possible no. of genotypes in multiple allelism = N (N+1)/2;
where N is the no. of alleles
For a three allele system, the equilibrium genotype frequencies can be
expressed algebraically as p + q + r = 1
(p + q + r) 2 = p2 + q2 + r2 + 2pq + 2pr + 2qr = 1

In case of sex linked genes…

P dash f is the frequency of the allele in new males…..

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The difference in gene frequency between the sexes will be halved as

compared to the previous generation ,,,,sex linked genes does not follow
the equilibrium….
also when two loci are considered together the genotype frequencies will
reach equilibrium after several generations of random mating. As no of
loci increases the time to reach the frequency also increases.. Under
random mating, loci that are linked approach equilibrium more slowly
than do loci segregating independently.

Non random mating are of 2 types assortative and

disassortative…assortative is the mating of individuals with same
phenotypes,,,,

There are 2 process affecting the genetic equilibrium…they are

systematic process and dispersive process…..systematic process affect in
all population and its direction and amount can be
calculated…eg…mutation, migration, selection,,,,,In case of dispersive
process its direction cant be predicted and it affects small
population,,,,eg Genetic drift

Migration,,,,
The gene frequency in new population will depend on the original gene
frequency of the population and the difference in gene frequency
between the immigrants and native (qm – q0) and the proportion of
immigrants …. Δ q = m (qm – q0) …delta q is q1 - qo

where n2 is the new immigrant….

The contribution of offspring to the next generation is called fitness of

the individual or adaptive value or selective value.
Founder effects – occurs when a population is initially established by
small number of breeding individuals … Bottleneck effect – occurs when
a population is dramatically reduced in size ..these two happens in small
populations…

Two genes are said to be alike by descend when they have a common
ancesotor without mutation,,,,,Autozogous,,,,,,
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Two genes are alike by state or allozygous when they have similar
nucleotids….

Inbreeding coefficient is probability that the two genes at any locus in an

individual are identical by descent. Denoted by F.. Panmictic index is the
probability that genes at any single locus are independent by descent P
= (1 – F)
Increment in inbreeding ….. ΔF = 1/2N

Variace of vhange of Gene frequency

The effective population size is based on the number of genes in the

population that can be passed on to the next generation. The symbol is
Ne (N-effective)

Rate of inbreeding is inversely proportional to the effective population

size.

Continuously varying characters are called quantitative characters or

metric characters (Example: economically important traits such as
height, weight, milk yield, wool yield, egg production etc.) and variation
in them is called quantitative variation or continuous variations.

Quantitative traits are controlled by multiple genes, each segregating

according to Mendel's laws. . The inheritance of quantitative traits or
poly genes is called Quantitative inheritance, Multiple factor inheritance,
33 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

Multiple gene inheritance or Polygenic inheritance.

The phenotypic value of a given quantitative trait is the yield of the

individual with respect to the trait. Denoted by P….
The phenotypic value (P) of an individual is determined by the combined
effect of the genotypic value (G) and the environmental deviation (E) ….
For a single locus, the mean environmental deviation in the whole
population is taken to be zero. So the mean phenotypic value is equal to
the mean genotypic value.

G = A + D + I G - Genotypic value A - Additive value D - Dominance

deviation and
I - Interaction or epistatic value ,,,,,( add I if more than 1 loci is involved)

Breeding value = the value of genes to progeny .. Genetic value = the

value of genes to self …..If an individual is mated to a number of
individuals at random, from the population then its breeding value is
twice the mean deviation of the progeny from the population mean
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(since the individual only contributes half of the alleles to its offspring)
…
With random mating, the mean breeding value is zero.

When a single locus only is under consideration, the difference between

the genotypic value (G) and the breeding value (A) of particular genotype
is known as dominance deviation.
The differences in phenotypic values of quantitative traits among
individuals of a population are referred to as variation. Expressed in
variance…

Dominance deviation and interaction deviation are non

additive…phenotypic variance is always positive…where as phenotypic
value can be negative..

intangible variation are non genetic variation …whose cause is

unknown…

Genetic Varience by Ronald Fischer

Genetic environment Co relation….

When G x E correlation is present, the phenotypic variance is increased
by twice the covariance of genotypic values and environmental
deviations and equation becomes VP = VG + VE + 2 covGE

If Genetic environment interaction is present

Vp = VG + VE + VGE.
P = G + E + IGE

Additive genetic effect..occurs when alleles of a single gene combine so

that the combined effects equals the sum of individual effect…non
additive involve dominanace or epistasis..
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Heritability in narrow sense is used to refer per cent or proportion of the

phenotypic variation between individuals for a particular trait that is due
to differences in the additive genetic effects of the trait. h2= VA/VP
..
It represents the percentage of genetic progress made in the next
generation when superior individuals are selected as parents

The ratio VG/VP is called the heritability in the broad sense or the
degree of genetic determination .. Heritability in the broad sense is a
measure of the strength of the relationship between phenotypic values
and genotypic values.
Heritability is a population measure, not a value to be associated with an
individual animal. It varies from population to population and from
environment to environment. Heritability ranges from 0 to 1.

Heritability….egg size…feed coversion…fat and protein percent in

cattle== .5
Milk yield.. .25 Hatchability and egg production .1

On the whole, the characters with the lowest heritability are those most
closely connected with reproductive fitness …
0.3 or more - high … 0.3 - 0.1 - intermediate / medium …..below 0.1 -
low

The value of an individual judged by the mean value of its progeny is called breeding
value of the individual …

on average parent transfers half its breeding value to its offspring. …

it is called progeny difference or transmitting ability.
PD = ½ BV

VP = VA+VD+VI +VE. These components are called causal components of variance.

The degree of resemblance between offspring and parent is measured by regression

coefficient and that between full or half sib is measured by correlation

Parent and Offspring ……

Or offspring and mid parent…. ½ VA

Half sib ¼ VA
Full sib ½VA+ ¼ VD + VEc

The coefficient of relationship between half sib is 0.25.

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The cov between half sib is due to ¼ VA+ 1/16 VAA.

The cov between parent and offspring is 1/2VA+ 1/4 VAA.

The coefficient of relationship between full sibs is 0.50.

Repeatability is defined as the correlation between measurements on the same

animal for traits, which are measured more than once.
Example….Lactation milk yield, Fleece weight in sheep, and Litter size in swine
Repeatability is Used to estimate the future performance of animals or Most
probable Producing Ability (MPPA).

Repeatability…
Egg weight 0.90
Egg shape 0.95
Shell thickness 0.65
Milk yield 0.50
Fat % 0.60
Grease fleece 0.40
weight
o 0.0 - 0.3 : Low .. 0.3 - 0.6 : Medium .. 0.6 and above : High

Correlations are used to describe the relationship between two traits in a

population
The values for a correlation coefficient range from –1 to +1.

Pleiotropy is the property of a gene whereby it affects two or more

characters, so that if the gene is segregating it cause simultaneous
variation in the character it affects.

Co Related response is how the improvement of one character will cause

simultaneous changes in other character.

PHENOTYPIC (rP), GENETIC (rA) AND ENVIRONMENTAL CORRELATION (rE)

BETWEEN IMPORTANT ECONOMIC TRAITS

Low - 0.2 to - 0.4 0.2 to 0.4

Medium - 0.4 to - 0.6 0.4 to 0.6
High - 0.6 and above 0.6 and above
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National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR), Karnal,

Haryana.
Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes, Hissar, Haryana
National Equine Research Centre, Hissar, Haryana.
Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute (CSWRI), Avikanagar,
Rajasthan.
National Camel Research Centre, Bikaner, Rajasthan.
Central Institute for Research on Goats, Mukdoom, UP
Indian Grass land and Forage Research Institute, Jansi, UP
Central Avian Research Institute (CARI), Izatnagar, Uttranchel.
National Research Centre on Yak, Dirang, Arunachal Pradesh
Horse was probably the last to be domesticated.
Bos longifrons (African Cattle).
Sus scrofa (European), Sus vittatus (wild boar)
the origin of horses were from Przhevalski’s Horse (Steppe Horse) ,Celtic
Pony and Libyan Horse

Father of Animal Breeding. …Robert bakewell

AI ……..Spallanzani ,,,used dogs…
Ivonoff…AI in cattle
Martin Cline created a transgenic mouse
Ian Wilmut cloned a sheep called “Dolly” from somatic cell of an adult
ewe
cloned calf from a Friesian cow “Jafferson”
2010 Cloned a buffalo calf named ‘Shresth’ at National Dairy Research
Institute, Karnal, India.
caffer (African buffalo), bubalis (Indian reverine buffalo or water
buffalo), grunniens (yak), bonasians (European bison), gaurns (gaur),
frontalis (gayal), sondaians (banteng)

Bos primigenins – Strong horns, narrow fore head. Example-Angus,

Ayrshire, Short-horn, Holstein Friesian, Red Poll. … Bos longifrons –
Broad and dished fore head. Example - Jersey, Guernsey, Brown Swiss….
Bos brachycephalus – Short and broad head. Example - Canadian,
Hereford, Kerry.

SUB ORDER ..
Horse…perissodactyla…. Camel, Pig,,,,,Artiodactyla….
cristatus (Indian wild pigs)
E.zebra (the zebra)
salvanius (Himalayan pigs)
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poultry class Aves..Order…Galliformes …anseriformes in

duck…Family..Phasianidae…
dick is anatydae….Breed>>>>variety>>>>lines or strains…
asses are of purely African origin

Rabbit…order…Lagomorpha ………Family….Leporinae
Camel Family is bovidae
Hare…Lepus Negricolli.. camel….Dromedaries bactrianus

Yak ,Mithun Family….Pecora….true ruminants..

Bos frontalis …Mithun
Yak (Bos grunniens)

The average daily gain in buffalo calves is 478 gram

Canary colouration of wool During Autumn season….fetches low
amount….this is due to staining with alkaline sweat….
selection is called the keystone of the arch in animal improvement

phenotype, unlike the genotype, changes with time

Heritability of a trait may be defined as that portion of the phenotypic

variation that is due to additive gene action

The offspring of outstanding parents often have a tendency to regress

towards the average of the breed from which they were selected. …..
Galton’s law of filial regression towards mean…
heterozygous individuals that are superior could be used for market but
not for breeding

artificial selection is divided into different methods, they are Tandem

method, independent culling level and selection index or index selection

selection based on its own performance is called mass selection or

individual selection.
comparison of performance based on its own individual performance is
called performance test …selection based on phenotype.. most of the
progress in livestock improvement can be credited to individual
selection.
comparing the individual’s own phenotype with that of the average of all
the individuals within a group from which it is selected and is called trait
ratio.
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In a random mating population, half-sibs have a relationship coefficient

of 0.25 and full-sibs have a relationship coefficient of 0.5.

If the records of the individual are included in the family average and
used as a criterion for selection, it is known as family selection. If the
individuals’ records are not included in arriving at the average, then it is
known as sib selection.
Collateral relatives are those not directly related to an individual as
ancestors or progeny

If environmental correlation among the phenotypes of the sibs are zero,

then t = Rh2
T is degree of correlation…
The accuracy of selection never exceeds 0.5

The selection based on pedigree is only useful than of individual

selection only when heritability is moderate or low.
When the pedigree data provides information on the phenotypic and
genotypic merit of the ancestors then it is called performance
pedigrees

Progeny testing attempts to evaluate the genotype of an individual on the

basis of its progeny’s performance.Mainly used for males…

Tandem method of selection….Breeder selects and improves only one

trait at a time until it reaches an acceptable level, and then he shift to
another and so on for a third

ELECTION INDEX OR INDEX SELECTION OR TOTAL SCORE

METHOD……
It is the most effective method of selection. Selection index is a single
numerical value within the total scores given for each trait considered in
the selection.

The response to selection is the difference of mean phenotypic value

between the offspring of the selected parents and the whole of the
parental generation before selection …R or G = h2 S ………..s is
selection differential…
The average superiority of the selected parents is called as selection
differential..
It is defined as the difference between the mean phenotypic value of the
individuals selected as parents and the mean phenotypic value of all the
individuals in the parental generation before selection. ..The factors
40 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

affecting the response to selection are heritability, selection differential

and generation interval. Maximum gain will result when the selection
differential (S) and the heritability (h2) are high and the Generation
Interval is low.
When the response to selection has stopped, the population is said to be
at “plateau” or “selection limit”.

Inbreeding is a system of mating where by the mates are more closely

related than the average members of the population.
Grading: is the practice of using registered sires of a given breed on
scrub or native females generation after generation.
Crossbreeding is the mating of pure bred animals from two different
breeds.
Out crossing is the mating of animals of the same breed but with no
traceable relationship for several generations back in the pedigree.
Mating system based on phenotypic resemblance or dissimilarity known
as assortative mating ,,,eg…external appearance…..so there is negative
and positive..

Top Crossing.. It refers to the use of highly inbred male with females of
base population or non-inbred population.
Cross breeding: It is the mating of two individuals from different breeds.
Line crossing : It usually refers to crossing of inbred lines within a
specific breed.

Inbreeding is also called as close breeding…Inbreeding is also known

as genetic assortative mating while out-breeding is also known as
genetic disassortative mating.
41 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

Close Inbreeding: Such as mating between sibs or between parents and

progeny in order to achieve inbred lines with relatively high degree of
homogenisity …Half sib mating is less risky and provides
homogenesity… …
Line breeding: It is a system of mating in which the relationships of an
individual or individuals are kept as close as possible to some ancestor.
In general line breeding is a milder form of inbreeding.
parents are more likely to be pre-potent than non-inbred parents.

Prepotency is the ability of the individual to stamp its characteristic on

its offspring to such an extent that they resemble their parents more
closely than in usual …
It is not transmissible from parent to offspring.

Strain and line are created through inbreeding..... strain is created first
…later line…
If inbreeding effects are large, the type of gene action is non – additive: if
inbreeding effects are small , then the type of action is additive.
MF = Mo - 2 F pqd …..inbreeding depression is – 2F pqd which
depends on dominance (d), inbreeding coefficient (F) and relative
frequencies of alleles (p & q).

Rxy =Σ [(1/2) n+n’ ]… n = No. of generations between X and the

common ancestor or the no. of times the halving process has undergone
between X and common ancestor
n’ = No. of generations between Y and the common ancestor or the no. of
times the halving process has undergone between Y and common
ancestor.

Relation btw cousin …12.5 %

Relation btw half first cousin 6.25….Half-first cousin: whose one grand-
parent is common
Relationship between double first cousins 25%.....Double first
cousin: whose four grandparents are common

The average percentage increase in homozygosity or decrease in

heterozygosity in an inbred animal in relation to an average animal of
the same breed or population is known as coefficient of inbreeding
symbolised by ‘F’.also called degree of inbreeding…Fx =
[(1/2)n1+n2+1] n1 = No. of generation from the sire of X back to the
same common ancestor
n2 = No. of generation from the dam of X back to the same common
ancestor
42 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

Full sib..25…half sib 12.5…The coefficient of inbreeding 25 means that

the animal “X” is 25 less heterozygous than the animals in the herd.

If common ancestor is inbred you have to use the formula…Fx =

[(1/2)n1+n2+1 (1+FA)]
First find Fa

Outcrossing…Out crossing usually applies only to mating within a pure

breed. If two lines or flocks within the same breed are separated for four
or five generations and the sire from one herd is used in another herd
that amounts to out crossing

Line crossing usually refers to crossing of inbred lines within a specific

breed. Line crossing takes advantage of both increased homozygosity
within a line and the difference between lines
.
Back Cross….It is the mating of a cross bred animal back to one of the
pure parent races, which were used to produce it.

Grading up is the continual use of sires of one pure breed starting with
foundation females which were of another breed or no particular breed
at all (Non-descript or Mongrel). Marked improvement in crosses if sires
from a particular breed (A) are repeatedly back crossed to another breed
43 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

/ non-descript animals (B). Five generations are sufficient to raise the

level of inheritance of breed A to 96.9% (0.969) in the fifth generation. 7
to 8 crosses are done…
Foundation stock 0
First generation 50
Second generation 75
Third generation 87.5
Fourth generation 93.75
Fifh generation 96.875
Sixth generation 98.4375
Seventh generation 99.23875
Eight…. 99.6

Pien-niu (Cattle ×Yak) Zebroid (Zebra × Horse) Mule (Mare × Jack)

Hinny (Stallion × Jennet) f) Cama (Camel × llama) Tigon: -Male tiger
× female lion Liger: - Male lion × female tiger

Geep is a chimera produced by combining the embryos of a goat

& a sheep. Chimera has four parents but a hybrid has only two parents
In India, the best method for improvement of buffalo breeds is
selective breeding.
Inbred line - developed from two generations of full-sib mating. A line
is called inbred line, if it has minimum inbreeding coefficient of
0.375 or 37.5%
44 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

In crossing - Crossing of two different inbred lines derived from the

same breed. In cross breeding - Crossing of the two different inbred
lines derived from different breeds.

Cross breeding is mating of two individuals from different breeds.

Types…. Single two way cross or Single cross …… Two different
breeds are crossed with each other to produce an F1……..
Three way crosses (A,B, C) The first generation crossbred females
are crossed with females of the third breed, then using the hybrid vigor
of dam.
Double cross or Four way cross

Back cross (AB)

o Usually the F1 females are back crossed to one of the parent breeds. In
this cross, the maternal heterosis is exploited

Criss crossing (Reciprocal back crossing)

o Breeds A and B are crossed to produce F1 generation, then F1(AB)
females are back crossed to B and F1 (AB) males back crossed to breed A
and so on.

Three way rotational cross

-
__________________________________________________
_______
HETEROSIS

Heterosis is a phenomenon in which the crosses of unrelated individuals often result

in progeny with increased vigour, much above their parents.
45 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

Heterosis (H) = [ (Mean of F1 offspring) - (Mean of parents) /Mean of Parents ] x

100
Heterosis is caused by heterozygosity of genes involving non-additive effects, which
mainly includes dominanace, over dominance and epistasis.
HF1 = dy2 and HF2 = 1/2 dy2
General combining ability (GCA) is the mean performance of F1 expressed as a
deviation from the mean of all crosses and it is due to additive genetic variance.
Specific combining ability (SCA) is the superiority of a particular cross over the
average GCA of the two lines and it is due to non-additive genetic variance. GCA and
SCA are expressed as variance and not as values. For measuring the general
combining ability, top crossing is followed.

Complementarity is due to additive gene action and it is not heterosis

Heterozygotes are less influenced by environmental factors than the homozygotes.

This phenomenon is termed as “buffering”, which means that the organisms’
development is highly regulated by genetics.

Those traits expressed early in life, such as survival and growth rate to weaning seem
to be affected most by heterosis. Feed-lot performance as measured by rate and
efficiency of gain after weaning is moderately affected. Heterosis has very little effect
on carcass traits. Traits, which show the greatest degree of heterosis are the same
ones which show the greatest adverse effects when inbreeding is practiced. Highly
heritable traits seem to be affected very little by heterosis; whereas, those which are
lowly heritable are affected to a greater degree.
..
Heterosis will be higher when breeds are crossed than lines within the
breeds are crossed…..
Heterosis is much employed to produce commercial stock where the
individual merit is promoted, but the breeding value is lowered.

Sire evaluation….

Different sire indexes……

Simple daughter average index…..

EQUIPARENT / INTERMEDIATE / DAIRY BULL INDEX / YAPP’S

INDEX ,,……… SI = 2D – M………..

MOUNT HOPE INDEX by Goodale…………

o S = D + (D - M) x 3/7 if D>M
o S = D - (M - D) x 7/3 if M>D
46 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

o S = D + (D - M) x 3/2 if D>M
o S = D + (M - D) x 2/3 if M>D

Heizers index based on milk production

Gifford index
Regression index or Rice index…..
Tomar index,….
Corrected daughter average index or krishnas index
Diary Search index or sundareshan index…

Herd mate comparison by Henderson and Carter

BEST LINEAR UNBIASED PREDICTION (BLUP) by

Henderson…..
Here records are adjusted for all known sources of environmental bias using
adjustment factors and the adjusted records are used for selection…..
Corrects the data automatically for all known non genetic sources
Estimates also the breeding value of individual having no records

BLUP is the best method for evaluating the breeding value of bulls and rank the sires
according to their genetic merit …

Most accurate method is progeny testing

Project Directorate on Cattle, Meerut

In progeny testing milk from the daughter is measured from 15 th day and
measured for 305 days

The Central Frozen Semen Production and Training Institute (CFSP&TI) located at
Hessarghatta (Bangaluru)

Breed of choice for imoroving draught animals….tarparkar

Buffallo….Murrah

National Project for Cattle and Buffalo breeding (NPCBB)…during 9th year plan….

OPEN NUCLEUS BREEDING SYSTEM The major disadvantage

of this system is the disease control that have a major
influence
It consists of three-tier multiplication systems, namely the nucleus tier
(selector and supplier ….10 to 15%), multiplier tier (multiplier and tester
population…30 to 40%) and the commercial tier 50%.
47 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

In CNBS The direction of the gene flow in traditional system is always

one sided i.e from nucleus tier to multiplier and then to the commercial
tier. And never back to nucleus tier from commercial tier.

CGBS (COOPERATIVE GROUP BREEDING SYSTEM)

adopted a sire breeding nucleus to breed replacement sires for itself and
the associated field level herds. Cows or buffaloes replacements are
reared in both the nucleus and associated herds at field level.
small ruminant population can be improved through Open Nucleus Breeding Scheme
(ONBS).

Sheep parameters to be considered… Tupping

“At no point, crossbreeding of goat should be resorted”

RECURRENT SELECTION: Given by Hull (1945):

tester.
rge number of individuals are crossed with this line and their progeny are
evaluated.

their progeny are tested in the crosses on the inbred tester.

and over.
RECIPROCAL RECURRENT SELECTION: Given by Comstock et al

Present breeding policy og goat… Up grading of non descript with improver breeds of
the area is rcommended

egg number, size and weight which are moderately heritable

H.F. will be used through out the state in crossbreeding programme.

48 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

Khaki Campbell is best egg producing breed in ducks

Ex-situ conservation is comparatively more convenient, economical and easy with

the application of modern reproductive technologies.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Statistic means Political state…

Biostatistics is also called Biometry meaning "biological measurement

A set or collection of objects pertaining to a phenomenon of statistical

enquiry is referred to as universe or population or census

When a few units are selected from a population, it is called as a sample

The quantitative or numerical characteristic of the data is called as a

variable

Constant is a numerical value, which is same for all the units in the
population

Attribute refers to the qualitative character of the items chosen

A statistical measure pertaining to a population is called as a parameter

and pertaining to a sample is called Statistic…
If a variable takes an intermediate value between any specified interval,
it is called as a continuous variable and if it only takes integral values
then it is called discrete or discontinuous variable…
49 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

When the investigator himself collects data its called primary

data,,,others through available sources like journals newspaper etc are
secondary data,,,,

Direct personal observation

Indirect personal Observation….through third
persons called witness

Data collection through agents, local reporters etc:

Appoints agents
Data collection through questionnaires: ********

Original Data is called Raw data…when grouped into classes its grouped
data…
Types of classification….Numerical in case of quantitative…..Descriptive
in case of Attributes….Qualitattive eg breed…………….Spatia or
Geographical class…..Temporal or chronological class….
Class frequency or frequency is the number of observations in that class.

When the Class Intervals are continuous, it is called True or Inclusive

Class Interval.

When there is a small gap between the upper boundary of any class and
lower boundary of sucessive class, then the Class Interval is called
Apparent or Exclusive Class Interval. 1 – 10,,,,,10-20

Class Mark is the midpoint of the class.

Statistical Tables are special tables used by statisticians in interpreting

the results of statistical analysis. The commonly used tables are ‘t’ tables,
z table, F table etc

Yules Rule and Sturge rule is to calculate no of classes..

Histogram is vertical bar diagram without gap between the bars.

Ogive is cumulative frequency curve .. The x co-ordinate of the point of

intersection of less than and greater than cumulative frequency curve is
the median.
Frequency curve is smooth and frequency polygon have straight lines…
50 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

Lorenz curve is a modification of the Ogive when the variables and the
cumulative frequencies are expressed as percentages.

Two dimensional (or) Area Diagram eg.. Pie diagram ,Square diagram
and rectangle diagrams
Three dimensional (or)Volume diagrams

One dimensional….Line Diagram, bar diagram, Component Bar Diagram

or Sub divided Bar Diagram, Superimposed or Multiple bar diagram ,
Percentage bar diagram

Bar Diagram … It is the simplest of all statistical diagrams

Two type of averages…

mathematical averages or algebraic averages (arithmetic geometric and
harmonic mean) and positional averages or averages of position (mode
and median)

(weighted AM)

The geometric mean is the nth root of product of ‘n’ items of a series ….
GM will be zero if one or more of the values are zero

geometric mean is the antilogarithm of the arithmetic mean of the

logarithmic values ..
Logarithm of geometric mean is the arithmetic mean of logarithmic
values.

Harmonic mean is the total number of items of a variable divided by the

sum of the reciprocals of the items.

Harmonic mean is the reciprocal of arithmetic mean of the reciprocal

values.
51 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

Mode is the size of the most frequent item in a large set of data. Thus
mode is the value of that variable which occurs most frequently or
repeats itself the greatest number of times.

For assymetrical case…… Mode = 3 median – 2 mean

A distribution can have more than one mode. If it has got one mode, it is
called unimodal distribution; if it has got more than three modes, it is
called multi-modal or poly-modal distribution. ….
The sum of the deviations of the items from the mean is equal to zero.

AM > GM > HM

For a symmetrical distribution, AM = median = mode

For a positively skewed distribution, AM > median > mode (short tail on
the left)
For a negatively skewed distribution AM < median < mode

When dispersion is not significant then the average appears to be a true

representative figure of the series ….The measurement of the scattering
of item in a distribution about the average is called a measure of
variation or dispersion. Differrent measures of dispersion Range …
Quartile Deviation .. Mean Deviation(M.D) …Standard Deviation (S.D)
Range= upper limit – Lower Limit….
dispersion for range or the ratio of range (R.R) …R.R = (H-L) / (H+L)

Quartile Deviation is based on quartiles which are points which divide

the data into four equal parts. …It is also known as semi-inter quartile
range ….
The difference, Q3 – Q1 is called inter quartile range and Quartile
Deviation is given by (Q3 – Q1) / 2

Relative measure of QD is known as the quartile co-efficient of

dispersion (QC).

Mean deviation or average deviation in a series is the AM of the

deviations of the various items from an average (mean, median or mode)
of the series taking all deviations as positive.
52 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

The relative measure of Mean Deviation is known as mean coefficient of

dispersion or coefficient of mean deviation and is obtained by dividing
the MD by the average from which it is computed

Standard Deviation is the most perfect and widely used measure of

dispersion ….
It is the root mean square of the deviations measured from the mean.

Relative measure of standard deviation is known as coefficient of

variation (CV or COV) and is defined as SD / Mean.

Higher CV indicates greater variability and less CV implies better

consistency of data.
Sheppard correction is to correct standard deviation…

Square of standard deviation is called as variance. It is the mean square

deviation.

The difference between the sample mean and population mean is due to
sampling and it is called sampling error or standard error.
Probable Error(PE) …. PE = 2/3 SD

QD = (2/3) SD = PE
MD = (4/5) SD
Std. deviation = 5/4(M.D.)

Skewness indicate the form or type of the distribution.

if the right tail is longer than the left, the distribution is positively
skewed; if the left tail is longer than the right, the distribution is
negatively skewed.

Pearsonian measure of skewness

It is given by, mean – mode or 3 (mean - median)
53 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

the coefficient of skewness is equal to skewness devide by SD

Bowley's measure of skewness

is given by Q3 + Q1 – 2M ….coefficient of skewness is…

Based on Moments …skewness is…

Kurtosis is the measure of Peakedness….It indicates the degree of

flatness or peakedness in the region or area relating to the mode of
frequency curve ….
The normal curve is known as mesokurtic.
A curve more peaked than normal curve is leptokurtic and the curve
which is flatter than the normal curve is platykurtic

Kurtosis is equal to β2 - 3
β2=3 for a normal curve
β2<3 for platykurtic curve
β2>3 for leptokurtic curve

Probability is a ratio taking values from 0 to1. It can never be negative. If

an event is an impossible event, then the probability is 0. If an event is
certain to occur, then its probability is 1.
Mutually exclusive events… If the occurrence of an event completely
avoids the occurrence of another event, then the events are said to be
mutually exclusive.
Sample space…Represent the set of all possible outcomes of a
phenomenon
If one tries to base the probability of an event on past experience of
certain outcomes based upon a long series of experiments (that is, on the
basis of statistical data), then the probability is known as statistical or
empirical probability.
THEORY OF TOTAL PROBABILITY OR ADDITION THEOREM…The probability of
occurrence of one or other of a set of mutually exclusive events is the sum of the
probabilities of occurrence of the separate events of the set …P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)
MULTIPLICATION OR COMPOUND PROBABILITY THEOREM …The probability
of simultaneous occurrence of a set of independent events is the product of the
separate probabilities of those independent events.
54 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

If p is the probability of the event, the probability that it will occur in exactly x out of
n cases is *nCx . q*n-x . p*x.

Binomial probability was discovered by James Bernoulli and hence it is also called
Bernoullian distribution. It's mean is np and variance is npq, where q=1-p, SD = root
of npq) ; Variance is always less than mean ….. p represents probability of success…It
is symmetrical, when p=q=½….When n is large and p is small such that np is
constant, the binomial distribution tends to a Poisson distribution . It is also called as
the law of improbable events………Mean is approximately equal to
variance………..Binomial and Poisson distributions are the more useful theoretical
distributions for discrete variables…it ranges from zero to infinity.. When n is large
and p=q=½, the binomial tends to become a normal distribution…The normal
distribution is the most useful theoretical distribution for continuous variable….
Also called Gaussian distribution or laplacian distribution or probability cuve….–∞ to
+∞…It is a symmetrical distribution, mean=median=mode…MD = 4/5 σ….skewness
zero…Kurtosis is 3. It is mesokurtic. If mean =0; SD=1 then the normal distribution
is a standard normal distribution…

Correlation is the strength of relationship or the intensity of association between two

variables. If two variables vary in such a way that as one increases (or decreases), the
other also increases (or decreases), then the correlation is said to be positive or
direct. (eg.) feed intake and growth rate of animals. If two variables vary in such a
way that as one increases, the other decreases and vice versa, then the correlation is
said to be indirect or negative (eg.) litter size and birth weight of piglets.If there is no
relationship between the two variables, they are said to be independent or
uncorrelated.
A measure of correlation free from units of measurements is called coefficient of
correlation. It is denoted by ’r’, r takes values from –1 to +1. When r = +1, the
correlation is perfect and positive, r = -1, the correlation is perfect and negative, r =
0, there is no correlation..
In multiple correlation, we study the correlation of one dependant
variable over all the other independent variables, (eg.) milk yield vs. first
lactation period, food supplied, age etc…… In partial correlation we study
the relationship between two variables, assuming that the other variables
are constant. (eg) correlation between the weight of broiler and feed
intake assuming the other factors like area provided, labour used,
medicinal cost etc. as constant.

The graphical depiction of a linear correlation presents a straight line

and its functional relationship is represented by the relation, y = a + bx,
where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants…A perfect linear correlation may be
positive or negative. Thus, its numerical coefficient will be either +1 or –
1. These are the limits of correlation….. Thus, coefficient of correlation
cannot be greater than +1 or less than –1. If the correlation is imperfect,
55 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

its graphic exposition will be non-linear.it will not form straight line and
value lies between -1 and +1….

There are different ways of studying correlation…scatter diagram or

scattergram or scatterplot or dot diagram is a chart prepared to
represent graphically the relationship between two variables.Corelation
graph is also similar…but both of then does not offer numerical
value…Among mathmetical method most commonly used is Pearsonian
coefficient of correlation…
Rank correlation is another method also called as Spearman’s rank
correlation coefficient as it was due to the statistician Spearman.
Square of correlation coefficient (r2) is defined as coefficient of
determination….
Coefficient of non-determination (1 – r2) /////This is also called as
unexplained variations…..

Regression is the amount of dependence of one variable on the other.

This gives the rate of change of one variable with respect to
another.introduced by Francis Galton….The simple linear regression is
of the form y = a + bx, where ‘b’ represents the slope of the line (also
called as regression coefficient ) and 'a' the intercept of the line.
Regression coefficient gives the rate of change in the value of dependent
variable ( y ) for a unit change in the independent variable ( x ).
Product of the regression coefficients is the square of correlation
coefficient.

Standard error or sampling error is standard deviation of the sample

means.ie.. SD/root n
Point estimate: is a single value which is used to estimate the population
parameter
Interval estimate: is an interval in which population parameter lies
between. It is also called fiducial limit or confidence interval.
Parameter is the statistical measure pertaining to the population, while
statistic is the statistical measure pertaining to the sample. The
reciprocal of standard error is taken as a measure of reliability or
precision of sample.. As n increases, SE decreases and hence precision
increases.

Livestock census….the first Census was organized during 1919-

1920…latest is 20th census…
56 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

Random sampling or probability sampling

lottery…random number table

o Stratified sampling
o Systematic random sampling
o Cluster sampling
o Multistage sampling.

Non random sampling or non probability sampling include

Stratified random sampling…..In this method, the population of size ‘N’

is subdivided into a definite number of non overlapping and distinct sub
population of sizes N1, N2, …, Nk .This procedure of dividing the
population into distinct sub populations is called stratification and each
sub population is called as a stratum. Between strata, there should be
greater diversity or variability.,,,within strata they are more
homogenous…so it is used in cases where the units are more variable….

Systematic random sampling….This consists of selecting only the 1st unit

at random, the rest being selected according to some predetermined
pattern involving regular spacing of units.

Cluster sampling…total population is divided depending on the problem

under study, into some recognisable subdivisions named as clusters and
simple random sample of these clusters is drawn.

In Multistage sampling, sub samples are created with in clusters…hence

clusters form first stage sampling unit…..the sub samples later created
forms second and third stage sampling units…

Purposive or deliberate or subjective or judgment sampling… It is the

one in which the investigator takes the samples exclusively at his
discretion.
Convenient sampling….. If the investigator chooses the samples at his
convenience, it is called convenient sampling.
Quota sampling…It is a type of judgment sampling wherein quotas are
setup according to some specified characteristics such as ‘this much in
this group’, ‘this much in other group’ and so on.
57 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

Test of significance is a statistical procedure followed to test the

significance of the difference between statistics and the parameter or
between any two statistics.
Hypothesis…. Any statement made about the population
Null hypothesis…. It is the hypothesis under test or initial hypothesis
proposed . It may or may not be true. It is usually denoted by Ho. Null
hypothesis is never proved.

Usually we will have two levels of significance. 5% and1% level of

significance…………… 5% level of significance means that, if this
experment is repeated under identical conditions 100 times,then the
chance for this conclusion to go wrong is five out of 100 ………. 1% level of
significance means that, if this experment is repeated under identical
conditions 100 times,then the chance for this conclusion to go wrong is
one out of 100 .

Statement contrary to null hypothesis is alternate hypothesis and is

denoted by H1.

Degrees of freedom(d.f)… The number of observations which are free to

move or free to vary.

Null hypothesis may be true but we reject it by our test which is Type I
error.
Null hypothesis may be false but we accept it which is Type II error.
Level of significance is the probability of type 1 error

In parametric tests the tests will be attached to distribution,,,,, Normal

deviate test or large sample test or Z test,,,,,,,,,,,,Students t test or small
sample test………………Chi-square test………… Variance – ratio test or F-
test

Z test is carried out, when sample size is > 30.

| Z | < 1.96, we say that Z is not significant and Ho is accepted.
We denote this by Z = ( )NS.
| Z | > 1.96, Z is significant and Ho is rejected. We denote this
by Z = ( )*.
| Z | > 2.58,Z is highly significant and Ho is rejected. We
denote this as Z = ( )**.

T TEST…. DF is N-1
If | t | < table value of t for (n-1) d.f. at 5% level t is non-significant and
HO is accepted. We denote this as t = ( ) N.S.
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If | t | > table value of t’ for (n-1) d.f. at 5% level ‘t’ is significant. Ho is

rejected, we denote this as t = ( )*.
If | t | > table value of‘t’ for (n-1) d.f. at 1 % level t is highly significant.
Ho is rejected. We denote this as t = ( ) **
When the sample are independent to each other the test done is called
unpaired T test…
The range of t distribution is negative to positive infinity

CHI SQUARE TEST…

This test is used in the case when observed frequencies are to be tested
for their fit with expected or theoretical frequencies or to test whether
two factors of classification of a set of individuals presented in the form
of two- way table are independent or not. This test is also used to test the
observed number of progenies in a genetic experiment to fit in
Mendalian laws of heredity.used to find goodness of fit…
If the calculated χ2 is less than table χ2 for the respective degrees of
freedom at 5% level. χ2 is not significant which is denoted by χ2 = (
)N.S.i.e., Ho is accepted. The fit is good.
If calculated χ2 is > table χ2 for the respective d.f. at 5% level χ2 is
significant and denoted by χ2 = ( )*. Ho is rejected. The fit is not good or
theoretical frequencies are not according to theory.
If calculated χ2 is > table χ2 for the respective df at 1% level χ2 is highly
significant and denoted by χ2 = ( )**. Ho is rejected. The fit is not good
or theoretical frequencies are not according to theory.

………………Here df is no of classes - 1
The degrees of freedom for r x c contingency table is (r-1) (c-1)….R is no
of rows and C is no of colums……

F test or varience ratio test…..

If cal | F | < tab F for d.f. = (n1-1), (n2-1) at 5% level, F is not significant
,denoted by F=( ) N.S. Ho is accepted.
If cal | F | > tab F for d.f. = (n1-1), (n2-1) at 5% level, F is
significant,denoted by F = ( ) *. Ho is rejected
If cal | F | > tab F for d.f. = (n1-1), (n2-1) at 1% level, F is highly
significant,denoted by F = ( ) **. Ho is rejected.
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Experimental error describes the failure of two identically treated

experimental units to yield identical results.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Randomization………..
Replication……..
Local Control…It refers to the skillful logical way of grouping the
experimental units in such a manner that there is more uniformity
within the same group and there is greater variability between different
groups.…

In completely randomised design (CRD), there is no local control

applied, while in randomised block design (RBD) local control is applied
in one direction with
one criterion and in Latin square design (LSD) in two directions with two
criteria.

When no treatment is applied over a group of experimental units we

consider these units to constitute a control group.
Auxillary variable are characters that are not being altered by the
treatments applied but may have influence on the characters under
study.

COMPLETELY RANDOMIZED DESIGN (CRD)

Simplest among all…This is the design in which the treatments are assigned
completely at random to the experimental units or vice versa. i.e. it imposes no
restrictions on the allocation of treatments to the experimental units. CRD is
preferred when all the experimental units considered for the experiment are known
to be homogeneous.
Degree of freedom for treatments is t-1 and for total CRD is N-1

If calculated F< table value of F for (t-1), (N-1)d.f. at 5% level, F is not significant. H0
is accepted. All the treatments are alike.
If calculated F> tab F for (t-1), (N-1)d.f. at 5% level F is significant.F=( )*. Ho is
rejected.

if calculated F> tab F for (t-1), (N-1) d.f at 1% level F is highly significant. F=( )**. Ho
is rejected ….
If F is significant or highly significant, critical difference between treatment means is
to be worked out.
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RANDAMIZED BLOCK DESIGN (RBD) …Experimenter

arranges this into homogenous blocks….
RBD is an equi-replicated design.
RBD is a better design than CRD, as this will have greater precision of
the estimates and greater efficiency of the designs.
If calculated F< table value of F for (t-1),(b-1)(t-1) d.f. at 5% level, F is not
significant. H0 is accepted. All the treatments are alike.
-1),(b-1)(t-1) d.f. at 5% level F is
significant.F=( )*. Ho is rejected.
-1),(b-1)(t-1) d.f at 1% level F is highly
significant.F=( )**. Ho is rejected.

Biological assay or bioassay is a form of experiment for the estimation of

the potency of a substance or comparing the efficacy of two or more
substances by means of the reaction that follows their application to
living matter. preparations of known strength is called the standard
preparation and the other is of unknown strength and is called test
preparation. Then the ratio R=Zs/Zt is called the relative potency of the
test preparation. when R is less than 1 the potency of the test preparation
is smaller than that of the standard preparation. If R = 1,the two
preparations are equi-potent.
An assay with two preparations containing the same effective ingredient,
which is responsible for the response, is called analytical dillusion assay.
An assay with two preparations which have a common effect but do not
contain the same effective ingredient, is called a comparative dillusion
assay.
There are three main types of bio-assays. They are
o Direct assays
o Indirect assays based upon quantitative responses and
o Indirect assays based upon quantal responses

In direct assays the tolerance doses, the doses below which no response
occurs for the standard and test preparations, are measured directly as
soon as the response has occurred.

Indirect assays basd upon quantitative responses…The responses may be

a change in weight, a change in analytical value etc.. The relationship
between the dose and response drawn as a frequency curve is known as
the dose response curve.

Under indirect assays based on quantitative responses there are two

types assays. They are,
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o Parallel line assays, The parallel line assays are those in which the
relationship between the quantitative response and log dose is linear.
The lines for the standard and test preparations shall be parallel. A
parallel line assay in which the standard and test preparations have an
equal number of doses and an equal number of subjects for each dose is
called a symmetrical parallel line assay. Otherwise, it is called an
asymmetrical parallel line assay…When we have k doses we then have 2k
point symmetrical parallel line assay…The most popular design is the 4-
point assay.
o Slope – ratio assays………….here the relative potency is estimated from
the ratio of the slopes (regression coefficients) of the fitted lines. we shall
consider here only assays with (2k + 1) doses. We may have 3 – point, 5
– point, 7 – point, etc., assays. The 3-point assays is the most efficient
design.

The assays in which the responses are qualitative are known as quantal
response assays….also known as all – or – none responses…………….Here
the strength of a preparation is charactersied by the median tolerance or
the dose that induces 50% responses.
If the response is mortality it is called median lethal dose and is denoted
by LD50.
If the response is not mortality, it may be called median effective dose
(ED50), median knock down dose (KD50), median antifeeding dose
(AD50) ….
The most commonly used measurement is LD50.
The ratio LD50 / ED50 is called therapeutic index.
LD 50 is estimated by Dragstedt – Behren’s method , spearman karber
method etc

……………………………………………………………………………………
Anova by Ronald fischer…to analyse difference among means…..

Punched cards, Punched paper tapes (used in olden days), magnetic

tapes, magnetic diskettes, magnetic drums, keyboards, compact disc,
etc., are some of the input devices.
Central processing unit consist of control unit, alu and register
unit…registers are used to store instruction and data for further use.

The main memory is of the type of Random Access Memory (RAM) and
the auxiliary memory is of magnetic memory. RAM can retain the
information as long as there is electric power.
62 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

Data obtained by counting are called discrete data. For example, total
number of students in a classroom. Continuous data is obtained by
measurement. For example, measurement of temperature or voltage.

Sex Limited (semen production, egg production,milk

production,sexual dimorphism,secondary sexual character) and
sex influenced traits(baldness,polled sheeps) are present in
autosomes….
Sex linked….Barred plumage in poultry; broodiness; feather
growth in poultry(rapid /slowfeathering); cryptorchidism in
horse X-linked:- Hemophilia, Colourblindness Y-linked:-
Hypertrichosis (excess hair on ear pinna), TDF(Testis-
determining factor)

Types of criss-cross inheritance a. Diagenic :-

-
granddaughter
Types of Noncriss-cross inheritance a. Holandric:-
-
granddaughter

Father of modern breeding…..JJ LUSH

Arithmetic mean * Harmonic mean = 2 * GM

IN CRD randomisation and replication are used

The variance of binomial variable is always less than mean

Critical region is also called region of rejection

Non parametric tests…..Chi square, mann whitney, friedman

test

Approximately 68 percent of observations fall within one

standard deviation of mean….95 percent in two standard
63 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

deviation of mean and 99 percent in three standard deviation of

mean….

Variables whose value can be expressed numerically…are

quantitative variables…

The sum of absolute deviation about median is least…

T test was invented by WS Gosset…

End of class interval is called class limit and middle is called
class mark

When observed and expected frequency are same then chi

square is zero

T test is used to campare 2 independent samples

Sum of squared deviation from mean is minimum

Father of stat…ra Fisher

In Poisson distribution arithmetic mean and varience are equal

Term regression, father of biostatics ,,,,,,franscis galton

Genetic slippage bt Dickerson….this is mis aligning of Dna

Strands during replication of repeated DNA sequences

Apearance of ancestral triats after generation is atavism

Semiconservative model Messelson and Stahl

Blue andualusian fowl…incomplete dominance…human skin

colour
Sickle cell anemia over dominance
Plumage in chicken…epistasis
64 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

The number of piglets in a litter is called threshold

character….milk production in polygenic character

When response is ceased the population is in selection limit

The booroola fecundity gene maps to sheep chromosome 6

Selection index was found by Hazel

Under National Kamadhenu breeding the centers were in

Andra and Madhya Pradesh

Fitness = 1- selection co efficient

Best method to enhance milk pro…selective breeding

NUTRITION…
A cattle embryo contains -- 95% water A new born calf contains -- 75-
80% water
Mature animal contains -- 50-70% water
bones – 45% and tooth enamel only 5% water.
Carbohydrate is only 1% in animals body…. ….

Fat is present at highest level in the seeds followed by leaves and stem…..
Protein is primarily present in active tissue such as the leaf. As the plant
mature there is migration of the protein from the leaves to the seeds to
serve as a reserve material for germination.

For quality evaluation of the feed or fodders proximate system of

analysis (also called Weende System of analysis) is the most accepted
system of analysis.

IN kjeldahl method of cp examination….digestion mixtue… K2SO4 and

CuSO4 in the ratio of 9:1
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In determination of EE Soxhlet’s apparatus is used….To avoid

foaming IsoAmyl Alcohol is used…
NFE % or nitrogen free extract = 100 – (CP% + CF% + EE% +
Total ash %)
CARBOHYDRATE… general formula (CH2O)n…….. three main groups
monosaccharide, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides.

Monosacharides….triose, pentose etc… Pentoses : the important sugar in

this group are arabinose, xylose, ribose…. Hexoses: Glucose, Fructose,
Galactose, Mannose are example of hexoses. D- Glucose (grap sugar or
dextrose)

Fructose or fruit sugar occurs in green leaves, fruits and honey.it is the
sweetest and also called levulose….

Oligosaccharides are formed by short chains of monosaccharide units

(from 2 to 20) linked one to the next by chemical bounds, called
glycosidic bounds…eg disaccharides… Sucrose: Sucrose is known as cane
sugar , beet sugar, table sugar. It is non reducing sugar consist of one
molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose. Lactose: lactose is
known as milk sugar… yield one mole of galactose and one mole of
glucose. Maltose : it is prepared from germinating grain ..it is reducing
sugar….. Cellobiose: is released by the action of microbial cellulases on
cellulose. It is reducing sugar and has two glucose moles,,,,

trisaccharides (Raffinose : Glucose + fructose +

Galactose)…oligosaccharides are sweet and are soluble in water whereas
polysaccharides are not…..

Polysaccharides are homopolysaccharides and heteropoly saccharides…..

Hetropolysaccharides: are hemicelluloses pectin, gum, mucilage.

Homopolysaccharides: are starch, dextrins, glycogen, cellulose (glucans);

inulin, levan (fructans)…

Starch….. Most kinds of starch consists of a mixture of two types of

polymers i.e. amylose and amylopectin. Amylose is a linear molecule in
which 250 to300 glucose units are joined by α -1-4 linkage. Amylopectin
is a highly branched molecule with branching occurring at every 24-30
66 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

glucose units with α-1-6 links at branch points and α-1-4 links within the
chain. The ratio of amylose: amylopectin in most starches is 1:3.

Glycogen….mainly occurs in liver…it is called animal starch…branching

at 10 to 12 units….

Cellulose….major structural component of plants…. β-1-4 linked D-

glucose units….. The β- linkage of the glucose molecule makes it
essentially insoluble and resistant to digestive enzymes….

Fructosans: these are fructose polymers that serve in some herbage

species and tubers as storage carbohydrate instead of starch.

Hemicellulose… They are less resistant to chemical degradation than

cellulose.

PECTIN… is Heteropolysaccharide of galactouronic acid….

Monosaccharide’s supply 3.74 kcal/g, disaccharides 3.95 kcal/g, while

starch 4.18 kcal/g;

cellulose the most abundant polysaccharide in nature

chitin the second most abundant polysaccharide in nature…bacterial

cell wall is composed of heteropolysaccharides….

PROTEINS…protens means first…..Protein contain 50 percent carbon

and 16 percent nitrogen… There are about 200 naturally occurring
amino acids but only 20 of these occur in proteins of all forms of life i.e.
plant, animal or microbial.
H

R …. C …… COOH

NH2

The exception to the above given general formula is proline and

hydroxyproline which has an imino (NH) instead of an amino
group….they form ZWITTER IONS as both basic and acidic groups are
present…. In a strong acidic solution an amino acid exists largely as
cation while in alkaline solution it exists largely as anion… All amino
acids except glycine are optically active.
67 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

A.V. HILL. M.P.T.T. ( arginine, valine, histidine, isoluecine, leicine,

lysine, methionine, phynylalanine, threoninne, tryptophane)…ruminants
don’t need essential AA…

Sulphur containing: - Cystine, cysteine, methionine …Imino: -

Hydroxyproline, proline… Aromatic: - Phenylalanine, tryptophan,
tyrosine……. Basic amino acids (Diamino-monocarboxlic ): - Arginine,
histidine, lysine. Acidic amino acids (Monoamino dicarboxlic): - Aspartic
acid, glumatic acid.

Neutral amino acids (Monoamino monocarboxylic): - Aliphatic straight

chain: - Alanine, glycine ///Branched chain: - Isoleucine, leucine,
valine///Hydroxy: - Serine, threonine…

In mature animals, when nitrogen equilibrium is established proteins

cannot be stored, but these can be stored in young ones or pregnant
animals,,,, Two bile acids, taurocholic acid and glycocholic acid are
derived from the amino acids taurine and glycine, respectively…
Rhodopsin, also known, as visual purple requires a protein scotopsin for
its synthesis.

1g protein = 4.3kcal

According to solubility and shape protein is divided into fibrous and

globular…

Fibrous proteins are insoluble in water and mainly promote structural

and mechanical function….Eg…collagen…teeth , bone , tendon….Fibrin
in blood clot….Elastin in arteries ad tendons….keratin, myosin….

Globular proteins…Albumin , Globulin etc…

BASED on chemical composition proteins are devided into Simple And

Conjugated….Simple proteins are Homoproteins..contain only AA…Eg
Keratin, collagen

Conjugated proteins… The complex or compound proteins on hydrolysis

yield non-protein groups, usually called prosthetic group as well as
amino acids.. Glycoproteins: - Contain a carbohydrate or carbohydrate
derivative.e.g. mucin
68 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

myoglobulin.

- Proteins carrying lipid molecules. e.g. serum

lipoprotein

- Proteins carrying metallic ions e.g. various

enzymes.

- Proteins bound to nucleic acids e.g. ribosomes.

nucleic acid e.g. casein

Storage protein: These store nutrients needed by the organisms or used

by other species feeding on it. Examples are casein in milk, ovaalbumin
in egg white.

Toxin protein…Snake venom…

LIPIDS…. soluble in organic solvent like ether, benzene, chloroform, and

carbon disulphide….Simple lipids or Homolipids…..fats,oils, waxes,,,,
Example of true waxes is carnauba wax (from the carnauba plant), bees
wax and sperm whale wax. Waxes do not give any nutritive value to the
animals. Burning of one gram of hydrogen produces 34.5 kcal. While the
same amount of carbon gives 8 kcal. That is why fats produce more heat
than carbohydrates or proteins…FATS are called “triacylglycerols” or
triglycerides because they are ester compounds of three fatty acids joined
69 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

to glycerol (trihydroxy alcohol).

Glycolipids are fatty acids with carbohydrates (galactose) and nitrogen

but without phosphoric acid. They consist of at least one sugar unit, so
they are also called glycosphingosides.

Short chain acids are pungent liquids, soluble in water. As the chain
length increases, melting points are raised and water solubility
decreases. Unsaturation and chain branching tend to lower melting
points… A polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) contains two or more
double bonds; linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acids
70 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

Clupanodonic acid is a highly unsaturated acid occurring in fish oils….

BUTYRIC ACID IN MILK FAT

Essentail FA… linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acids In the body

linoleic acid is rapidly converted to arachidonic acid, the physiologically
functioning PUFA.

Protein..It is the major constituent of dry matter in muscles, soft tissue,

liver, heart, kidney, lungs, intestines, etc. Muscles contain nearly 75-80%
protein.

Carbohydrates is present only around 1% of the total animal body.

Calcium…most seen mineral - 1.3%, Phosphorus - 0.7%

Fat is present at highest level in the seeds followed by leaves and stem
The lignin content of plant tissues increases with maturity of the plant.

In animal reserve energy is fat whereas in plant it is fat..

Stuctural component is protein and minerals in animals ,where it is

carbohydrate in plant..
71 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

The content of crude protein, soluble ash is higher just before flowering
and goes down at seed formation stage, whereas crude fibre and dry
matter content increase as the plant matures ..EE also goes down..

Water intake…cow , buffalo, horse…36 L….sheep goat….18 litre

Chicken 250 ml …Turkey 400 mL Swine 22

Animals will consume 2 to 5kg of water for every 1 kg of dry feed

consumed when they are not heat stressed

Young animal need more water…

Water that is provided to the animal by metabolic processes is called as
metabolic water or oxidation water. Oxidation of carbohydrates yield
60% of its weight as water, protein yields 42% and fats yield 100%. In
hibernating animals, Desert Animal it is the only source of water …

The seven minerals / elements that are present in high concentration

(>70 mg/kg live weight) are termed as major minerals ..
Calcium (Ca) Phosphorus (P) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium (Na)
Potassium (K) Chlorine (Cl) Sulphur (S)

Trace elements or Micro minerals are those minerals that are pesent in
low concentration (<70 mg/kg live weight) but are physiologically
equally important …15 Be in number..
Element Enzyme
Copper Cytochrome
oxidase
Zinc Carbonic
anhydrase
Selenium Glutathione
peroxidase

Ruminant tends to excrete Ca and P in the faeces whereas monogastric

species excrete Ca and P mainly in the urine. If there is Surplus PO4 in
interstine -Ca ions precipitated, Mo surplus leads to-Cu precipitated

Parathyroid gland through Parathormone increases calcium in

blood….they also increases the synthesis of 1,25 dihydroxy
cholecalciferol (active form of vitamin D) from 25 hydroxy
cholecalciferol in the kidneys, which in turn increases the synthesis of
72 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

calcium binding protein resulting in increased calcium

absorption.,,,,calcitonin is the antagonist….
In adult animals, calcium deficiency produces osteomalacia in which
the calcium in the bone is withdrawn and not replaced. If calcium is
deficient in the diet of young growing animals, then satisfactory bone
formation cannot occur and the condition known as rickets is produced
.. Like calcium, phosphorus is also required for bone formation and a
deficiency can also cause rickets or osteomalacia.Phosphorous can
decrease reproductivity….Normal blood calcium level in ruminants is 8-
12 mg/dl….. Normal blood phosphorus level in ruminants is 4-8 mg/dl

Milk fever (parturient paresis).calcium requirement Dairy

cattle : 0.34 % DM Pig : 0.9 % DM Poultry – Broiler : 1.0 %
DM Poultry – Layer : 3.5 % DM
The optimum calcium phosphorus ratio is between 1:1 and 2:1.
o An excess of dietary phosphorus in relation to calcium may
result in a bone disorder called nutritional secondary
hyperparathyroidism (NSH). An excess of phosphorus
depresses calcium absorption
It is called as miller’s disease or bran disease or big head disease in
horses…
Eclampsia in bitch small breeds or toy breeds are most susceptible such
as the pug, pomeranian, spitz& Chihuahua
Phosphorous reqq…..Dairy cattle : 0.29 % DM Pig : 0.7 % DM
Poultry – Broiler : 0.7 % DM Poultry – Layer : 0.5 % DM
Pica/Depraved appetite/Allotriophagia in cattle (animal eat uneatable
items such as woods, bones, rags etc.) ………………………Post-parturient
hemoglobinuria(PPH)/Lahumutna/Hypophosphatemia……Osteodystrop
hia fibrosa or Big head disease in horse fed bran (because bran contain
low Ca and high P)……..
phosphorus present in cereal grains is in the form of phytates, which are
not digested and utilised in monogastrics.Rumen has phytases….In
carnivores Phosphorous excretion is through urine,,,,,

Mg is enzyme activator, important factor in oxidative phosphorylation

for production of ATP…hypomagnesaemic tetany , Winter
Tetany,magnesium tetany, lactation tetany and grass staggers associated
with low blood levels of magnesium (hypomagnesaemia)….In case of
mare Lactation tetany is caused by calcium
73 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

Sodium is the main cation of extracellular fluids …anion chlorine, while

potassium is the main cation of intracellular fluid …anion phosphate…

Sulphur containing vitamins are thiamine & biotin.. Sulphur-

containing amino acids are methionine, cysteine,
homocysteine, and taurine,, Sulphur containing hormones are
insulin, ADH/vasopressin, oxytocin….Nitrogen: Sulphur ratio in
wool is 5:1….keratin in wool has less nitrogen compared to hair….

MICRO MINERALS…

Iron also occurs in blood serum in a protein called transferrin, which is

concerned with the transport of iron from one part of the body to
another. Ferritin is a protein containing iron. It is present in the spleen,
liver, kidney and bone marrow and provides a form of storage for iron.
Haemosiderin is an another storage form of iron. Enzymes containing or
activated by iron are catalase, peroxidases, phenylalanine
hydroxylase…According to Mucosal block theory the mucosal cells of the
gastrointestinal tract absorb iron and convert it into ferritin, and when
the cells become physiologically saturated with ferritin, further
absorption is impeded until the iron is released and transferred to
plasma. Anemia in piglets is characterized by poor appetite and growth.
Breathing becomes labored and spasmodic-hence the descriptive term
'thumps' for the condition.mainly in 2 to 4 week piglet…I/M injection of
Iron dextran on 4th&14th day after birth

Some of the copper containing enzymes are…Ceruloplasmin

(ferrooxidase) - conversion of iron into transferrin….Erythrocuprein -
occurs in erythrocytes where it plays a role in oxygen
metabolism…Cytochrome oxidase , which is important in oxidative
phosphorylation and myelin synthesis. Tyrosinase is necessary for the
conversion of the amino acid tyrosine to melanin which is necessary for
the normal pigmentation of hair, fur and wool. Copper is the integral
component of T uracin, a pigment of feathers. Copper is required for
maintenance of crimp of wool. Lysyl oxidase is needed for the conversion
of lysine to desmosine which forms crosslinks in elastin and collagen
fibres.

Copper Deficiency…Scouring, gastro-intestinal

disturbances,Infertility, Depigmentation of hair and wool…Loss of
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'crimp' in wool - 'stringy' or 'steely' wool….'falling disease' – sudden

death due to rupture of major blood vessels.. Lesions in the brain stem
and spinal cord. The lesions are associated with muscular
incoordination, and occur especially in young lambs - swayback or swing
condition also known as 'enzootic ataxia' or neonatal ataxia. The signs
range from complete paralysis of the newborn lamb to a swaying
staggering gait, which affects, in particular, the hind limbs…

Chronic copper poisoning results in necrosis of the liver cells, jaundice,

loss of appetite and death from hepatic coma.,,,esp in sheep,,,,

The sulphide formed from ruminal micro organisms reacts with

molybdate to form thiomolybdate which in turn combines with copper to
form an insoluble copper thiomolybdate (CuMoS4) thereby limiting the
absorption of dietary copper.This is Called TEART….

enzymes containing zinc; these include carbonic anhydrase, pancreatic

carboxypeptidase, lactate dehydrogenase, alcohol dehydrogenase,
alkaline phosphatase and thymidine kinase.

ZINC deficiency…bone abnormality referred to as the 'swollen

hock syndrome' in poultry…Frizzled feather appearance in
poultry…Zinc deficiency in calves, pigs causes parakeratosis, a
skin disorder. Parakeratosis is aggravated by high calcium
levels in the diet and reduced by decreased calcium and
increased phosphorus levels. Hyperkeratosis in cattle

Manganese..
Manganese containing superoxide dismutase catalyses the
reactions that promote immunity in animals. Its deficiency can result in
reduced vitamin K induced blood clotting response.
Manganese is an important element in the diet of young chicks, a
deficiency leading to perosis or 'slipped tendon', a malformation of the
leg bones.Slipping of achiles tendon..
Manganese deficiency in breeding birds reduces hatchability and shell
thickness, and causes head retraction in chicks, causes a condition called
as nutritional chondrodystrophy which is characterized by the
shortening of the bones of the wings and legs, shortening of the lower
mandible leads to parrot beak condition,.
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Cobalt Deficiency… - Wasting disease or coast disease or Pining or

Enzootic marasmus….Loss of body weight due to wasting of skeletal
muscles…Fatty degen of liver….

Selenium is a component of gluthathione peroxidase, an enzyme which

catalyses the removal of hydrogen peroxide, thereby protecting cell
membrances from oxidative damage…ill thrift in lambs… Nutritional
muscular dystrophy(Gizzard myopathy in turkey, Stiff lamb disease,
white muscle disease, mulberry heart disease)Se helps in normal
absorption of Vit E…Deficiency - Nutritional myopathy / white muscle
disease in calves (muscle degeneration) / stiff lamb disease / mulberry
heart disease(pigsHigh selenium containing plants Eg(Astragalus
racemosa) can result in condition blind staggers or alkali
disease…Toxicity…)… Blind staggers (Acute poisoning)… Alkali disease
(Chronic poisoning)Degnala disease of cattle (Chronic poisoning).

Molybdenum toxicity causes Teart or Peat scours…in such case

Administer copper… Femoral head necrosis in chickens due to deficiency

Flouride Toxicity bone plus teeth affection…resulting in exposed pulp

cavity..Causes Dental Caries in chicken…

Chromium appears to have a role in glucose tolerance, possibly

forming a complex between insulin and its receptors. Chromium is a
component of glucose tolerance factor (GTF)

Perosis/Slipped tendon in chickens: due to deficiencies of Mn,

Biotin, Choline, Folic-acid&Vita.B12

Water soluble vit….are B ,C…its excretion through Urine…They are not

stored in body Except B12

B COMPLEX VITAMINS….Vitamin B1 (thiamin) Vitamin B2

(Riboflavin)… Vitamin B3 (Niacin/Nicotinamide/Nicotinic acid) B5
Panthothenic acid Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) B7 Biotin B9 Folic
acid…. Vitamin B12 (Cyano cobalamine)…… Choline

Fat soluble…Through faeces…storage in fat…can cause toxicity…

VITAMIN A
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Synthesis of Rhodopsin….or visual purple…11-cis Retinal formed from 11

cis retinol can be shuttled to the rod cell, where it binds to a protein
called opsin to form the visual pigment, rhodopsin ..On nerve
stimulation Trans Retinal is formed..resulting in nerve
impulse…Inadequate retinol available to the retina results in impaired
dark adaptation, known as "night blindness."

Mild vitamin A deficiency may result in changes in the conjunctiva

(corner of the eye) called Bitot's spots. Severe or prolonged vitamin A
deficiency causes a condition called xerophthalmia (dry eye)….

Vitamin A Is also needed for bone formation…in its absence optic

foramen is Malformed….resulting In CONGENITAL BLINDNESS,,,,

vitamin A helps to prevent infections so is called anti infective vitamin.

In poultry Nasal and ocular discharge, drowsiness, pale comb and

wattles, eyelids stuck shut with thick exudates., Staggering
Gait….NUTRITIONAL ROUP… Vit A is needed for sperm Prodn in
males, normal cyclical activity in Females….

Another issue with its deficiency is increased csf pressure.

The condition caused by vitamin A toxicity is called hypervitaminosis A.

Poultry…4000 IU/kg feed………Growing Cattle :80 IU/ kg body weight

All green leaves are rich in provitamin A, beta-carotene. Conversion of

carotene to vitamin A takes place in the intestinal mucosa. One molecule
of beta-carotene is converted into two molecules of retinol.Hightest
efficiency of this conversion is seen in Chicken and Rat…. One IU = 0.3
micro gram of crystalline retinol.

Vit D Deficiency,,,, Rickety Rosary – enlargement of Osteochondral

junction in ribs…Rubbery Legs in Poiltry… Penguin Like SQUAT

Vitamin D is Obtained From Provitamin D: Ergosterol - plant and 7-

dehydrocholestrol – skin of animals.

D2 ergocalciferol

D3 cholecalciferol

VIT E … TOCOFEROl
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In association with the selenium-containing enzyme glutathione

peroxidase, it protects cells against oxidative damage caused by free
radicals.1st line is vit E …Later by Glutathione….

Deficiency – Nutritional myopathy / white muscle disease / stiff lamb

disease / mulberry heart disease / Nutritional Muscular Dystrophy

Exudative diathesis is a vascular disease of chicks characterized by a

generalized oedema of the subcutaneous fatty tissues, associated with an
abnormal permeability of the capillary walls.Also causes Syncope in
pigs..

Yellow fat disease or Pansteatitis in cat

Selenium has role in all the above diseases but not in….Nutritional
encephalomalacia or crazy chick disease , a condition in which the chick
is unable to walk or stand, and is accompanied by hemorrhages and
necrosis of brain cells.

VIT K

Vitamin K is required for synthesis of prothrombin in the liver and also

for the synthesis of factors plasma thromboplastin and tissue
thromboplastin involved in the conversion of prothrombin to thrombin.
Sweet clover when it gets mould infested contains a compound
dicoumarol, which lowers prothrombin content of blood leading to
haemorrhagic disease and hence vitamin K is also called as anti
haemorrhagic vitamin.

VIT C…ASCORBIC ACID

Deficiency ….SCURVY…Vitamin C is dietary essential only in man,

guinea pig and other primates, red vented bulbul and fruit eating bat as
these species lack the enzyme L-gulonolactone oxidase.others synthesize
from glucose….PITHED FROG CONDITION in Baby

VIT B1
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Star Gazing posture in chicks…Thiamine deficiency in foxes causes

Chastek paralysis.Pork meat is rich in thiamine,,, Cerebrocortical
necrosis (CCN) in ruminant,,,,anti neurotic factor…..also called vit
F…polyneuritis,Beri Beri

VIT B2 or vit G….1st vitamin isolated

It is a constituent of flavoproteins, Flavin mononucleotide and Flavin

adenine dinucleotide..

Curled Toe Paralysis in chicks…they walk on hocks…In chicken

Embryonic abnormalities occur including the clubbed down condition in
which the down feather continues to grow within the follicle leading to
curled feather

Niacin or Nicotinamide….pellagra factor of gold berg

helps in hydrogen Transfer in Cells by functioning as the active group of

2 co enzymes NAD and NADP…Causes pellagra,,,Niacin is synthesized
from tryptophan…Maize Diet contain less niacin and trypt,,,active form
nicotinamide

B5 or Pantothenic acid

Pantothenic acid is a constituent of coenzyme A…Deficiency of

pantothenic acid in pigs causes slow growth, diarrhoea, loss of hair,
scaliness of the skin and a characteristic 'goose-stepping' gait….blooody
whiskers in rats…burned feet syndrome……

Vitamin B6 or pyridoxine….Vitamin H….factor 1

Functioning form is aldehyde form…PYRIDOXAL

Phosphate..Convulsions due to accumulation of glutamic acid will
occur…anemia in pigs is another deficiency Disease…Antidermatitis
factor….

B7 Biotin or Factor H or protective factor or anti egg white

injury factor ….Fatty liver and kidney syndrome , which mainly affects
two-to five-week-old chicks,In pigs, biotin deficiency causes foot lesions,
alopecia (hair loss) and a dry scaly skin.Biotin Dependent
enzymes….pyruvate carboxylase,accetyl coenzyme A carboxylase,
propionyl coenzyme A carboxylase.
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“Spectacle eye” in rat

B9 FOLIC ACID……..anemia,,,,Anti anemia factor….Vitamin

M….megaloblastic anemia….macrocytic hypochromic anemia

Choline,,,Synthesized from methionine in liver…like manganese

deficiency it cause perosis or slipped tendon… Choline acts as “lipotropic
factor” which is responsible for prevention of fatty liver..

B12…….. anti-pernicious anemia factor, animal protein factor, chick

growth factor, Cyanacobalamine…intrinsic factor,,,for
absorption,,,FACTOR X……

Vit D acts as hormone

Energy Feeds…

Cereal grains are rich source of thiamine and vitamin E but deficient in
vitamin A and riboflavin except yellow maize, which is rich in provitamin
A.Eg maize, barley, oats, wheat, rice etc…Normal Cp 8-12….TDN…68-72

Maize or Corn (Zea maize):

maize kernel contains two main proteins Zein and Glutelin…High TDN:
85% ….Flaked maize decreases the acetic acid to propionic acid
proportion in rumen and hence depresses the butterfat content of milk….

Rice (Oryza sativa): Nutritive value Comparable to Maize…

Wheat (Triticum aestivum) …The endosperm contains prolamin

(gliadin) and glutelin (glutenin) protein mixture, which is referred as
gluten …Gluten is a tough substance obtained after the removal of starch
from flour.they are unpalatable and bulky so normally not given as
feed…
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Oats (Avena sativa): 15 percent CP and CF….high Glutamic

Acid…
Barley (Hordeum vulgare): helps in Fattening of pigs.

Rye (Secale cereale):

• Rye is similar to wheat in composition and regarded as least palatable
among cereals.

MILLETS are also cerials but with high CF…eg Sorghum, Bajra,
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Sorghum /Jowar / Milo (Sorghum vulgare)….Similar to maize

but high protein…
Bajra / Cumbu (Pennensetum typhoides):
Tannin content High…

MILLING BYPRODUCTS…

The oil removed rice bran is available as deoiled rice bran …

MIDDLING…..A byproduct from flour milling industry comprising

several grades of granular particles of bran, endosperm and germ

Molasses…It is a byproduct produced during juice / extract prepared

from selected plant material.It is a concentrated water solution of sugars,
hemicellulose and minerals.wood molasses 2 percent Cane molasses –
3% CP, Beet molasses – 6% CP,
Citrus molasses – 14% CP, …..Sweetness is expressed as BRIX
unit…Molasses can be included upto 15% in cattle ration and upto 5% in
poultry ration.

Animal and Vegetable FAt

Fat (Vegetable /Animal) provides 2.25% more energy than carbohydrate
or protein.

PROTIEN FEEDS

Animal origin has mostly over 47% protein, 1.0% calcium, 1.5%
phosphorus, and fewer than 2.5% fibre while plant origin has mostly less
than 47% protein, 1.0% calcium, 1.5% phosphorus and over 2.5% fibre.

Plant Origin,,

OIL SEED CAKE OR MEAL

Three main processes are used for removing oil from oil seeds. ….. Use
pressure to force out oil (ghani and expeller). ….. Use of an organic
solvent to dissolve the oil from seed..finally expeller followed by
solvent….Only material with oil content of less than 35% is suitable for
solvent extraction…..

Groundnut oil Cake….

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Cake is expeller pressed whereas meal is solvent extracted , both

contains two grades…Protein content 45 percent…There are four
Aflatoxins, B1, G1, B2, G2 out of which B1 is most toxic…Mice and sheep
are resisitant others susceptible…Young is more susceptible….The
common adulterant includes castor husk and Mahua oilcake.

Soyabean Meal

Protein 44…The common adulterant includes urea, castor husk and

Mahua oil cake.There is presence of goitrogenic substance in
soyabean…Kunitz anti-trypsin inhibitor and Bowman-Birk chymotrypsin
inhibitors are seen in soyabean…Haemogglutinin (Lectin) present in
soybean agglutinates red blood cells of rats, rabbits and human except
sheep and calves.Lectins are proteins capable of binding carbohydrate
moieties in the epithelial cell lining of small intestine, disrupting the
brush boarder and reducing the efficiency of absorption. Genistein, a
plant estrogen in soybean has the potency of 4 x 10-6 time as that of
diethyl stilbestrol.

Safflower meal is also calle kardi meal….

Sunflower oil cake…

Not used in small ones.. high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids that
tends to produce soft pork in pigs and soft butter in cows when fed in
large amount.

Cottonseed oil cake…calcium phosphorous ratio is 1:9….milk become

hard..contain gossypol which gets inactivated during expeller process in
screw press and also by addition of calcium hydroxide and iron salts….

Cocunut Oil Cake…Cp 20 to 26

Mustard oil Cake….cp 27…TDN 72

Linseed meal…Most Dispersible in water…as it form slime due to

presence of mucilage,,,…immature linseed contain linase and linamarin ,
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a glycoside… linamarin and linase Forms HCN…Not suitable for

poultry……

SESAME SEED MEAL / GINGELLY OIL CAKE / TIL

OILCAKE…

Cp 40…three varieties …white****, Red**, Black…

RAPESEED MEAL / CANOLA MEAL

Contains myrosinase which is goitrogenic…it has favourable calcium p

ration…tannins decrease digestibility….

Leguminous seeds like peas and beans are protein sources….Similar to

that of fishmeal protein it has high lysine content

ANIMAL PROTIEN SUPPLEMENTS

included only upto 15% in the ration.. Bovine Spongiform

Encephalopathy (Mad Cow Disease) in cattle and Scrapie in sheep and
goat transmitted by prions….

Fish meal…….rich in bit B and animal protein Factor…..

Squilla meal is a fish byproduct..

Meat cum Bone Meal…cp 65The enteric factor from the intestinal
tract of swine, the ‘ Ackerman’ factor and growth factor in ash are
important in meat meal.

Blood meal…cp 80

Incubator waste or Hatchery By Product Meal (HBPM). Mixture

of infertile, unhatched eggs and eggshells cooked, dried and powdered.

Others…Dried poultry excreta has been used as ruminant

feed.hydrolysed poultry feather meal,,,,,skim milk,,,whey milk(b
lactalbumin as protein)

NPN compounds…..Rumen microbes use NPN in the synthesis of their

own cellular tissues and thus supply animal protein in the form of
microbial protein.
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UREA NH2-C=O-NH2. is 46 percent nitrogen…Urea can provide

287.5 % of Crude protein (46 x 6.25)… Rumen microbes hydrolyze urea
with urease to produce ammonia…N:S ratio of 15:1 is necessary to avoid
sulfur containing amino acids deficiency. Urea can be included at 3% of
concentrate or 1% in complete diet. Maximum allowance
136g/animal….Dont give to non Ruminants…

BIURET…Heating urea produces Biuret.40 percent nitrogen and

225 percent cp..

Single cell protein yeast and bacteria ,,,eg pseudomonas... Uric acid
or allantoins, the end products of nucleic acid catabolism, are excreted in
the urine of animals consuming SCP. lacks cellulose, hemicellulose and
lignin, it contains glucans, mannans and chitins…

Grasses…Non legume forages contain 5-10 % crude protein, 0.3-0.5 %

calcium and 0.2-0.3 % phosphorus while legume forages like Cow pea,
Leucerne and Sesbania contain 20-25% crude protein, 1.4-1.6 % calcium
and 0.1-3 % phosphorus on dry matter basis.…Carotene is present 55
percent in 100 g of grass.cf in young plants may be around 20 and in
older ones around 40….Leguminous plants have symbiotic association
with nitrogen fixing bacteria…tropical grasses have (C4) pathway of
photosynthesis in which carbon dioxide is fixed in four carbon
compound – Oxaloacetate….in case of temperate it is c3 type and fixed as
phosphoglycerate…tropical grass has low protein content compared to
temperate…Nitrate is a non protein nitrogenous fraction (NPN) present
in forages.it is not poisonous but when it converts to nitrite in the rumen
then it toxic…Recently fertilized plant can have high nitrates…SO do not
feed more than 700ppm…Nitrite combines with hemoglobin to form
methemoglobin. the blood and tissues of the animal take on a blue to
chocolate brown tinge….Natural foaming agents (Saponin) in legumes
cause a stable foam to form in the rumen. Gas is trapped in small
bubbles in this foam in the rumen and the animal cannot belch up the
gas. Subterranean clover, red clover and Lucerne contain Oestrogenic
activity. Thiocyanate interferes with the uptake of iodine by thyroid
gland leading to goiter..this is seen in brassica ie cabbage turnip etc…
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3 types of grazing systems,,,,continuous(throughout year 1 place)

rotational ( Animals moved periodically) Strip ( fresh pastures each Day
)

CEREAL Fodders….They are annual crops….

Cereal fodders are annual crops and the fodder should be harvervested at
2/3rd or 50 % flowering stage . CP 8 to 12…
Grass fodders…..they are perennial in nature…First harvest of
Hybrid Napier, Guinea grass and Para grass is done at 75 days
after planting and the subsequent cuttings are done at 45 days
interval.

Leguminous crops Berseem, cowpea, lucerne, desmanthus and stylo

….calcium 1.5. 15-25 per cent crude protein…annual fodder ,,,berseem ,
cowpea…..60 days harvest
Perennial…lucern,desmanthes….harvested at 75 days after sowing and
subsequently at 45 days intervals

Tree Fodders
The non leguminous tree fodders includes leaves of neem,
banyan and fig CP 8 while leguminous tree fodders includes
leaves of gliricidia, subabool, acacia, sesbania.CP 20
Anti nutritional factor in subabul is mimosine……chemically similar to
tyrosine….in rumen in produce DHP dihydroxypyridone…in thyroid
gland it inhibit the production of thyroxine…

ROOTS AND TUBERS….roots..carrot , beet…rich in sugar,,,,,,

tubers..potato, cassava…rich in fructan or starch…cassava contain HCN

CROP RESIDUES..STR
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STRAW…Mainly contain lignin…

Paddy straw…Straw digestion is limited due to the formation of strong

physical and/or chemical bonds between lignin and the structural
polysaccharides (Cellulose and Hemicellulose).hence cellulose is utilized
only after the breakage of this bond…crystalline structure of cellulose
also hinders digestion..Contains high ash…17%...

Legume Straw…
Most common pulse are Urad (Phaseolus mungo), Moong
(Phaseolus radiatus), Moth (P.aconiti folius), cow peas (Vigna catiang )
etc.

STOVER…
Consists of the leaves and stalks of corn (maize), sorghum or soybean
plants that are left in a field after harvest.
HAULMS… The stems of peas, beans etc., are called as haulms.
have better nutritive value than stovers.

Bagasse is the fibrous residue remaining after sugarcane is crushed to

extract their juice…

DRY MATTER REQUIREMENT …Camel: 2% of body weight…Working

& lactating camel: 3% of body weight …Zebu cattle: 2- 2.5 Kg/100 Kg
body weight…Buffalo and crossbred cow: 2.5 - 3Kg/100 Kg body
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weight….Sheep: 2.5 - 3 Kg per animal per day….Lactating sheep: 4% of

body weight….. Meat goat: 3-4% of their live weight… Dairy goat: 5-7% of
their live weight

ENERGY

Food evaluation systems are based on digestible, metabolic and net

energy….the only useful form of energy is Net energy...Unit
…Calorie…One calorie is the energy required to raise the temperature of
1g of water to 15.5°C from 14.5°C. 1000 calories = 1Kcal (amount of heat
required to raise 1kg of water to 1°C). 1000 Kcal = 1Mcal or
Therm…..IUPAC advocates to use Joules as unit….1 calorie = 4.184
joules.

GROSS ENERGY…It is defined as the energy liberated as heat when

feed, faeces or any other substance is fully oxidised by burning a sample
completely in a bomb calorimeter. ,,,

DIGESTIBLE ENERGY….It is the energy of the feed less the faecal

energy…largest loss of energy through faeces…..20 to 40 percent is
lost….. Faecal energy loss is 20 percentage of gross energy in pigs…30 to
40 in horses….. Ruminant: In the case of roughages 40-50% of GE intake
(GEi ) In the case of concentrate 20-30% of GEi

METABOLISABLE ENERGY….It is the digestible energy less the energy

lost in urine and combustible gases leaving the digestive tract , chiefly
methane.It can also be defined as ingested gross energy minus faecal
energy minus urinary energy minus gaseous energy. It is the portion of
energy available for metabolism. ME is commonly used to evaluate
feedstuffs for poultry because the birds void urinary and faecal losses
together.urinary loss is about 2 to 3 % of gross energy in pigs and 5
percent in ruminants….losses more in ruminants…. Energy lost as
methane (CH4): 7% of GE
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NET ENERGY……Net energy is obtained from ME by subtraction of heat

increment. • NE is that portion of energy that is completely useful to the
animal for maintenance to sustain life and production purpose such as
milk or egg…

METABOLIC WATER… Amount of water produced in the body

during various metabolic activities. It comprises of 5-10% of total intake
of the nutrient…1 g Glucose or sugar 0.60g….FAT produces 1 g…Protein
.50

NET ENERGY is METABOLIC ENERGY MINUS Heat of fermentation

& Heat of nutrient metabolism……..there is net energy for production
and maintenance…

HEAT INCREMENT….its a wasteful process….HI is also called as

specific dynamic effect it consists of the following,,,,, Heat of nutrient
metabolism…. Heat of fermentation…. Heat production from work by the
kidney….Heat production from increased muscular activity due to
nutrient metabolism…..HI is greater in ruminants compared to
monogastrics….In short Heat increment is the amount of energy lost as a
result of chemical and physical processes associated with digestion and
metabolism…HI increases with the amount of feed consumed and may
be used in animals reared in cold environment to warm the body
otherwise.

TOTAL DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS

Energy expressed in terms of the weight of digestible material in the

feed…indicates the relative energy value of a feed to animals…expressed
in kg or percent….TDN (%) = % digestible crude protein + % digestible
crude fibre + % digestible N-free extract + (2.25 x % digestible ether
extract). The digestible ether extract is multiplied by 2.25 because on
oxidation fat provides 2.25 times more energy as compared to
carbohydrates

% TDN = % DCP + % DCF + % DNFE +(2.25 x % DEE)

Presence in indigestible compounds , acid insoluble ash can decrease

tdn…minerals have no energy so it can decrease tdn…fat increase
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tdn,,,,,,in such cases tdn exceeds 100 percent…pure fat DEE is 100….so
tdn is 225…

In TDN only loss through Faeces is calculated…..

As far as carbohydrate (CF ; NFE) and fat is concerned the TDN system
can be fit into DE system in ruminants. …… In case of protein, the
TDN system not only considered faecal loss but also urinary loss. So in
case of protein the TDN system can be fit into ME system…If the TDN
system completely fits into the DE system, then the %DCP should be
multiplied by a figure of 1.3.

TDN is based on the Atwater physiological fuel values for human

nutrition. In India TDN system is commonly followed energy evaluation
system for ruminants.morrison standard (pigs , Horses) also uses TDN…

It is often preferred to express TDN in calories of DE. DE can be

calculated by multiplying TDN with a factor of 4.4. It is found
experimentally that the average caloric value of 1 gram of TDN is 4.4
Kcal (= 17.5 KJ). 1 gram of fat is equivalent to 9.5 Kcal

Nutrititive ratio ….narrow in oil cakes…broad in roughage and

intermediate in cereals…

SE or starch equivalent or starch value or production value is

defined as the number of Kg of starch that produces the same
amount of fat as 100 kg of the respective feed.Based on carbon
nitrogen balance

SE = ( Weight of fat stored per unit of food/ Weight of fat

stored per unit weight of starch) X 100.

Starch equivalent factor of starch, C F, Nitrogen free extract or NFE

is one…protein .9…..oil seed EE…2.4……Cereal EE..2.1…Roughage EE
1.9…..

A correction value is used in case of concentrate and roughages to find

actual starch equivalent ..and it is multiplied with the calculated
production value…normal correction value in case of concentrate is
called golden number or value number that is .95…. and in case of
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roughage it is .58…in case of roughage for every one percent crude fibre
there is .58 decrease in SE….

When we say that the SE of wheat bran is 45, it means that 100 kg of
wheat bran can produce as much animal fat as 45 kg of pure starch when
fed in addition to maintenance ration or in other words 100 kg of wheat
bran contains as much net/productive energy as 45 kg of the starch.

It is a productive type system, which considers all the energy losses

including faecal, urinary, gaseous and heat losses.but Kellner expressed
energy values for feedstuffs and requirements for all functions in starch
equivalents for fattening. As the SE considered all the energy losses from
the body and only the useful energy is stored as fat, this system can be fit
into the NE system.

ARMSBY'S NET ENERGY SYSTEM

Uses calorimeter.. Armsby expressed the NE value in therms (1 therm = 1

Mcal = 1000 Kcal).

PHYSIOLOGICAL FUEL VALUE

Heat of combustion determined Based on the composition of
carbohydrate, fat and protein… PFV = GE × Digestibility coefficient

Atwater ’s average gross energy value factors

Carbohydrate - 4.15 Kcal/g ….Fat - 9.4 Kcal/g … Protein - 5.65 Kcal/g

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Atwater physiological fuel value

Similar to ME ….but in carb and fat no losss…but in case of protein

nitrogenous compounds like urea get lost through urine….this loss is
about 1.25kcal per gram of protein…Carbohydrate = 4 Kcal/g Fat = 9
Kcal/g

Protein – (5.65 – 1.25) x 0.92 = 4 Kcal/g………….In ruminants gaseous

loss also costs much of energy thus these physiological fuel values are not
applicable in the case of ruminants.

CALORIMETER……..

Direct calorimeter is For measuring sensible heat loss (through

conduction,radiation) calorimeter used are Adiabatic and
gradient….more accurate is gradient……we use respiratory chambers for
its calculation..

IN indirect calorimeter magnitude of energy metabolism is

estimated from the exchange of respiratory gases.

0.16g of urinary N being excreted for each gram of protein.average

amount of heat produced by the catabolism of 1 g. of protein is 4.3 Kcal.

Respiratory quotient..It is the ratio between the volume of carbon

dioxide produced by the animal and the volume of oxygen used. For each
gram of protein oxidised, 0.77 litres of carbondioxide is produced and
0.96 litres of oxygen used, giving an RQ of 0.8.
average amount of heat produced by the catabolism of 1 g. of
Carbohydrate is 5.047…fat is 4.7 Kcal…This is called thermal
equivalent…Carbohydrate RQ is 1 and fat RQ that of tripalmitin is .7

If x g of urine or nitrogen is produced multiply it with 6.25 to find the

amount of protein…
If X g of carbon is produced , then fat storage is calculated by multiplying
the carbon balance by 100/74.6.
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Estimation of protein in Monogastric animals…

digestibility Coefficient of protein refers to the percentage of the

ingested protein absorbed into the blood stream after the process of
digestion is complete.

when an animal is fed on nitrogen - free diet certain amount of nitrogen

is excreted in the faeces. This is derived mainly from the digestive juices.
This is called metabolic faecal nitrogen.

Protein Efficiency Ratio weight gain per unit weight of protein

eaten

Net Protein Retention… A modification of PER method, where the

weight gain of the experimental group is compared with a group on a
protein - free diet…

Gross protein value……. The extra live weight gain per unit of
supplementary test protein, stated as a proportion of the extra live
weight gain per unit of supplementary casein…

BIOLOGICAL VALUE…. It is a direct measure of of the proportion of

the food protein which can be utilised by the animal for synthesising
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body tissues and compounds and may be defined as the percentage of

the nitrogen absorbed which is retained by the animal.

here nitrogen is
endogenous urinary nitrogen and metabolisable faecal nitrogen…

Biological value of animo acid increases when they are given in

mixtures…….than given separately…so there is high fluctuation in the
biological value of same amino acid in different situation…

NET PROTEIN UTILISATION (NPU)

The usefulness of a protein to animal..

Protein replacement Value….. The PRV measures the efficiency of

utilisation of the protein given to the animal.

PROTEIN EVALUATION IN RUMINANTS CP, DCP, MP etc

METABOLISABLE PROTEIN….. Metabolisable protein is that part of the

dietary protein which is absorbed by the host animal and is available for
use at tissue level.Absorption happens at small intestine..

Duodenal flow is found with the help of markers… diaminopimelic acid

(DAPA), amino ethylphosphonic acid (AEPA), ribonucleic acid and 35S,
32P and 15N labeled amino acids.

METHODS TO IMPROVE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF FOOD

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In Grinding particle size is reduced to .1 to .3 cm…can result in low milk

fat syndrome….

Explosion…chopped or ground feed is steam boiled resulting in lingo

Cellulosic bond…

Alkali treatment… NaOH, NH4OH, CaOH, KOH, Urea.

There are 2 methods in sodium hydroxide treatment….they are dry

process(sprayed with naoh) and Beckman process..where it is soaked in
NaOH…

The disadvantage of ammonia treatment is the production of a condition

called bovine bonkers…(formation of toxic imidazoles from reactions
between ammonia and sugars leads to dementia)…urea soln is used here
for 3 weeks…TDN and cp are increased..

Acids (H2SO4,HNO3); Salts (NaCl,Na2CO3); Gases(chlorine,SO2);

Oxidizing agents(H2O2,ozone)

BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT….

SCP…by inoculating with candida…………………Growing cellulolytic

microorganisms such as white rot fungi Trichoderma viridae,
Trichoderma lignorum……………………….By enzyme treatment…example
lignase…
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Temperature time protocol of some instruments:

1. Autoclave: 121 degC/15 lbs/15 min

2. Hot air oven: 160 degC/1hour 3. Muffle furnace: 600 C/1-2 hours

KARNAL process is a bio chemical process of silage making using 4%

urea developed in NDRI.. Coprinus fimeratius 3% is the culture…

The driving off moisture from forage forms the basis in hay making while
retaing forage’s succulence through anaerobic fermentation forms the
basis for silage making.

HAY MOISTURE 12 to 14… 25-30 per cent crude fibre and 45-60 per
cent TDN..Microbial growth can result in hay fever or farmers lung…
Two third flowering stage is the optimum period for harvesting to make
good quality hay. Handling hay during early morning minimise loss of
leaves.

ARTIFICIALLY DRIED FORAGES…. Hot gas (150oC) for 20 –50

minutes…… Hot gas (500-1000oC) for 0.5-2 minutes

ENSILAGE…or silage making………. The main purpose of silage

making is to preserve succulent fodders for usage at the time of scarcity.
Compaction is the key step in silage as it removes the air pockets to
promote anaerobic fermentation. In well preserved silage pH 3.8 –4.2…
chemical sterilisation agents such as formaldehyde, sulphur dioxide or
sodium metabisulphate is used for preservation..two type of Bacteria…
Homofermentative lactic acid bacteria are more efficient at converting
hexose into the acid than the heterofermentative organisms. The amount
of ammoniacal nitrogen should be less than 10 per cent of the total
nitrogen.uniformly greenish to brownish..no butyric acid..
These are characters of very good silage…..
In good silage….ammoniackel percent is 10 to 15….ph 4.2 to 4.5…some
butyric acid…
In fair quality silage ph 4.5 to 4.8…ammonia 15 to 20….tobacco brown
clr..little butyric acis..
Poor…due to butyric acid….ph above 4.8….ammonia above 20
percent,…blackish clr..
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Legumes should be cut at 50%stage…

TYPE OF SILO…Pit silo..10 kg per cubic volume…Trench silo…similar to

pit bt trench have more length than breadth…Tower silo…middle silage
will be good quality…Tube silo…can be shifted..

HAYLAGE… character btw hay and silage,,,its low moisture

silage..moisture 50 percent..

Straw DCP 0%....Cp 3 to 4..moisture 10..TDN 40…

Best crop for hay making…oats…For silage making….Maize….

Best legume hay…….Lucerne ( Alfa Alfa)…. If hay made with high

moisture legume, it results in fermentation & heat production leads to
the formation of Brown hay or mow-burnt hay , Which is due to Maillard
Reaction…. Lysine amino acid is mainly susceptible to Maillard type
reaction….

Two type of fermentation occurs during ensiling…lactic acid

fermentation occurs when contents are carbohydrate and butyric acid
fermentation occurs incase of protein excess….best one is lactic acid
fermented…Ammoniacal nitrogen in very good quality silage is less than
10 %... Urea @1% & salt @0.5% are added.. Pit silos are more common in
India. Flieg-index is commonly used method for evaluation of silage
quality

Wastelage: Anaerobically fermented animal waste (poultry dropping,

poultry litter, swine excreta, and bovine dung) with the help of lactic acid
producing bacteria…

A.I.Virtanen in Finland proposed an ensiling method by using acid

additives like-H2SO4 &HCl….Ph less than 4

Mixture of grass/cereal fodder& legume used for ensilage should be in

the ratio of 3:1

ANTI NUTRITIVE FACTORs are those generated in natural feedstuffs by

the normal metabolism of the species and exerts effects contrary to
optimum nutrition..

Substances depressing digestion or metabolic utilization of protein:

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PROTEASE INHIBITOR….eg soyabean.. Kunitz anti-trypsin inhibitor;

Bowman-Birk chymotrypsin inhibitors… Trypsin inhibitors especially
interferes the protein digestion in monogastric animals….Can be
detoxified by autoclaving

Aflatoxin in Ground nut Cake…can be detoxified using ammonia or

ammonium hydroxide,…..

Lectins or ricin (hamagglutinins): Ricin in castor bean cake is a

toxic fraction capable of agglutinating human red blood cells. Lectins
are proteins capable of binding carbohydrate moieties in the epithelial
cell lining of small intestine, disrupting the brush border and reducing
the efficiency of absorption.

Saponins… seen in leguminious plants such as clovers, lucerne

etc…bloats, inhibit proteolysis , rbc lysis are problems…

Avidin(egg white injury factor)…… in egg…Detoxified using

BIOTIN

Cyanide poisoning…. A fodder crop having retarded growth

due to drought & regain its growth after rains will cause
Cyanide poisoning. Dhurrin in jowar , sudan grass…..Linamarin in
Linseed and cassava…..Amygdalin in Bitter Almond…..Detoxification
using NaNO2(Sodium nitrite) + Na-thiosulphate…

Glucosinolate….. goitrogenic… Brassicaceae family plants Mustard,

Rapeseed, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Turnip

Nitrate poisoning…….Oat Hay poisoning….Detoxified using Methlene

Blue….

Nimbin, Nimbidin, Azadirachtin in neem

Raw fish, Bracken fern Thiaminase

Tannins….decrrease palatability as they form cross link between

proteins..astringent activity…

SUBSTANCE REDUCING THE SOLUBILITY OR INTERFERING

WITH THE UTILIZATION OF MINERAL ELEMENTS
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Phytates , gossypol,oxalates, glucosinolates or thioglucosides….

GLUCOSONOLATES or (Thioglucosides) >>> genus Brassica, which

includes cabbage, turnips, rapeseed and mustard seed…. Their main
biological effect is to depress the synthesis of the thyroid hormone
(Tryroxine and Triiodothyronine), thus producing goiter.

Gossipol in cottonseed…add caoh or iron salts..

SUBSTANCES INACTIVATING VITAMINS AND HORMONES

• Raw soybean contain an enzyme lipoxygenase, which catalysis

oxidation of carotene, the precoursor of vitamin A.

• Soy protein (unheated) depresses vitamin D synthesis in chicks

and pigs.

• Diets containing raw kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) produce

muscular dystrophy in lambs by reducing plasma vitamin E.

• Dicoumarol produces fatal hemorrhagic condition in cattle called

as “Sweet clover disease”.

• An antagonist of pyridoxine (a member of B Vitamins) occurs in

linseed

• Mimosine in genus luceana eg subabul is degraded to Dihydroxy

pyridone (DHP) in the rumen. DHP reaches thyroid gland and inhibits
biosynthesis of the hormone thyroxine.
CYANOGENS

Sorghum and sudan grass, linseed and cassava root contains relatively
high levels of Cyanide inactivating the cytochrome oxidase system,….
Treatment includes intravenous injection of sodium nitrate and sodium
thiosulphate…Ruminants are more prone to this as hcl destroys HCN in
monogastrics…

ADULTERATION
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Argimona maxicana seeds are used as mustard adulterant…water is used

as adulterant instead f molasses….melamine is a new type of
adulterant….

Tests…organoleptic tests…Feed microscopy….Spot test…Chemical tests..

Spot test…..2.5 % ammonium molybdate is used….effervesence witout

ppt means carbonate….efferv with yellow ppt means dicalciu,
phosphate…..no eeferv with yellow ppt means phosphates…..

FEED ADDITIVES

“feed additive” refers to a non-nutritive product that affects utilisation of

the feed or productive performance of the animal.

Additives that modify consumer acceptance eg xanthophyl from poultry

manure ..yellow colour…

GRIT such as limestone are used to enhance digestion in poultry…

Ethoxyquin or BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene) can serve as antioxidant

in feed.

feed buffers and neutralisers, such as carbonates, bicarbonates,

hydroxides, oxides, salts of VFA, phosphate salts, ammonium chloride
and sodium sulphate are fed along with concentrates……

Chelates icrease absorption…. naturally occurring substances such as

chlorophyll, cytochromes, haemoglobin, vitamin B12, some amino acids,
etc.synthetic substances like ethylenediaminetetracetic acid
(EDTA.),,,,,,,,,,,,three types… Chelates that Aid in transport and to store
metal ions…eg EDTA, amino acids like cysteine and histisine….Chelates
essential in metabolism… Vitamin B12, cytochrome enzymes and
haemoglobin… Chelates which interfere with utilisation of essential
cations..these are normal chelates that are formed in the body and
negatively affects some cations…eg Phytic acid-Zn chelate or oxalic acid
calcium chelate..

Enzymes….Barley supplemented with B Glucanase….

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Antibiotics should not be used in the feed of ruminant animals (cattle,

sheep and goats), breeding pigs and breeding and laying poultry
stock.can be used in meat purpose chicken pig turkey etc…

Hormone implant Diethyl stylbestrol DES

SURFACTANT as antibloat…poloxalene

Antifungals such as Nystatin and copper sulphate preparations

Anticaking agents are anhydrous substance that can pick up moisture

without themselves becoming wet. Sodium aluminium silicate,,, Sodium
calcium aluminium silicate,,,,,, Calcium aluminium silicate… Potassium
and sodium ferryocyanide…calcium phosphate,,,,MgO

Sequestrants are substances that block the oxidative action of metals…eg

EDTA

Saccharin is a sweetener without calorific value…..

Nutrient is any food constituent or group of food constituents of the

same general composition that aids in the support of animal life. There
are 7 nutrients…FORAGES are of two types …bulk and
supplementary…70 % dry matter should come from forage…

Fodders are specially grown forage for livesyock…Napier of 1 to 2 m

height is medium quality and more than 2 is low quality….Dried forages
are low quality and seed set ones are medium…

Supplementary forages should not be more than 25 to 30…they include

legumes and fodders with more cp…

Potassium mineral is an essential component of the suint in wool.

FEEDING EXPERIMENTS

COMPARATIVE FEEDING TRAILS…simplest..we cant fnd out why

one is superior…

FEEDING TRIALS WITH LABORATORY ANIMALS….

Purified Diet method….this also uses lab animals… Purified diets

consist of purified sources of the various nutrients…starch,glucose,
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sucrose for carbohydrate….pure crystalline compounds for vitamins….

Protein is supplied as Casein, Purified soyabean protein or urea….etc

GERM FREE TECHNIQUE…..here foetus are taken out by c section

and fed with sterilized diet …..so that they are pathogen free… Specific
Pathogen Free (SPF) animals are developed to avoid the multiplication
of intestinal organisms,,

Controllled vs Ad libitum feeding…

Individual vs Group feeding..

EQUALIZED PAIRED/PAIRED FEEDING……controlled feeding

technique…compares two rations…

Slaughter experiments involves the analysis of certain specific

tissuesor of the body as a whole.

………………………………………………………..

Digestibility Coefficient…

Apparent digestibility co efficient can include metabolic substances from

body…..

True digestibility does not consider that so it is larger….

For ash or minerals it is not estimated, because it does not contributeto

energy to the feed

Methods of Determining Digestibility

Invivo…semi invivo….in vitro…

IN VIVO….direct or conventional…..indirect consist of marker

method and difference method….

Under indirect difference method for finding digestibility of one

compound it is mixed with another whose digestibility is known and the
difference is calculated….

INDICATOR METHOD…. Eg…LIGNIN,indigestible acid-detergent fibre

and acid insoluble ash (mainly silica)and also some naturally occuring n-
alkanes of long chain length (C25-C35). The indicator most commonly
added to foods is chromium in the form of chromic oxide, Cr2O3. For
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non ruminants ,titanium dioxide,,,ideal marker should be totally

indigestible…natural…inert…uniform distribution….

Polyethylene glycol (PEG), Chromium, EDTA and Cobalt EDTA are

liquid phase markers in ruminant studies…… Rare earths
(Lanthanam,Samarium,cerium,ytterbium and dysprosium) may be used
as reliable markers of particulate phase….

IN VITRO method by Tilley and Terry….some methods include Using

rumen liquor………….Using enzymes instead of rumen
liquor…….RUSITEC method

The digestibility coefficient determined in vitro is generally 1-2

percentage units lower than the coefficient measured in vivo.

In sacco or In situ or Semi in vivo or Nylon or Dacron Bag

Technique….eg nylon bag technique, vivar technique…..

FACTORS AFFECTING DIGESTIBILITY

Young , old animals less efficient…light work improves

digestibility,,,,,heavy work depresses….soaking increases…in ruminants
as the dietary protein level increases, the digestibility of all the nutrient
increases.soluble carbohydrate,fat,crude fibre decrease
digestibility….addition of fat increase digestibility coefficient of ether
extract….salt, water, minerals increases…but no action in poultry and pig
comparing to minerals…..

Factors Affecting TDN

Water decrease tdn as it decrease dry matter….no tdn or digestible

energy for minerals…as mineral in feed increase dry matter decrease so
less tdn….fat has high tdn,,,,

FACTORS AFFECTING ME

For ruminats the grinding and pelleting of roughages leads to an

increase in faecal losses of energy, but this may be partly offset by a
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reduction in methane production.In poultry no effect… ME value is

reduced by increase in the level of feeding…. High concentrate, low
roughage rations increase propionic and butyricacids and lowers the
acetic acid in the rumen contents; methane production is also reduced.
The nutritive ratio is the ratio of digestible protein to other nutrients in
feed stuff should not be wider than 1:6 or narrow than 1:4.5.

FEEDING STANDARDS..

Feedings standards are the tables, which indicate the quantities of

nutrients to be fed to the various classes of livestock for different
physiological functions like growth, maintenance, lactation, egg
production and wool growth… The nutrient allowance is an extra
allowance of nutrient over the requirement….eg….NRC IN USA…ARC in

UK,,,

HAY STANDARD …by thaer……unit..Maedow hay unit…He published

Hay equivalent…. 100 lbs. of meadow hay was equal in nutritive value to
91 lbs. of clover hay or 200 lbs. of potatoes, 625 lbs. of mangels…..1810

Scandivanian feed unit System…..Fjord …this was based on milk

production… The value of one pound of common grain such as corn,
barley or wheat, is given as one unit value and the value of all other foods
is based upon this.1884..
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GROUVEN’S FEEDING STANDARD ….carb,,,,cp and fat…. Henneberg

and Stohmann opposed it…1859

WOLFF’S FEEDING STANDARD…by emil von wolf…digestible

carb,cp,fat…1864

WOLFF’S LEHMANN FEEDING STANDARD…1896…considered milk

quantity….

HAECKERS Feeding Standaards…..considered quantity and quality of

milking….considered production requirement , mainternanace
requirement….

“Modified Wolff and Lehmann standard” or “Morrison Feeding

Standard”….. Dry Matter (D.M.), Digestible Protein (D.P.) and Total
Digestible Nutrients (T.D.N.).1915

NRC …national research council standard….1945… ME for poultry, DE

for swine and horses, DE, ME and TDN for sheep, ME, TDN and NEm
and NEg for beef cattle and for dairy cattle, values are given for DE, ME,
TDN, NEm and NEg

INDIAN STANDARD …sen and ray…DCP TDN ME

total digestible nutrient can be converted into digestible and

metabolizable energy by taking 4.4 Mcal DE and 3.6 Mcal ME per kg
TDN.

STARCH EQUIVALENT BY KELLNER….. Here heat is determined

indirectly by finding the amount of carbon dioxide gas liberated or by
measuring the amount of oxygen gas used up in oxidation which takes
place in the body.

ARMSBY used calorimeter to find energy… The book “manual of cattle

feeding” was published by Armsby

AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD RESEARCH COUNCIL (A.F.R.C.)

STANDARD…UK.. The unit of energy requirements has been expressed
in terms of Starch equivalent instead of T.D.N. or ME or NE as in
Morrison and in N.R.C. standards. The ARC has adopted the ME system
since 1980…

ICAR feeding standard was given by Dr.S.K. Ranjhan

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TDN is a measure of apparent DE but is expressed in units of weight or

percent rather than energy per se.

ME is the accurate system…best for poultry… The requirement of the

animal and feed value are given in terms of NE and ME, respectively.

Energy Requirement for maintenance…

The energy expended in the fasting animal is represented by the fasting

animal heat production

The term Basal Metabolism or Basal Metabolic rate (BMR) refer to

theheat production of an animal resting in a thermally neutral
environment 25 degree and in a post-absorptive state…in case of
ruminants attaining this is difficult hence it is called resting
metabolism,,,,

Fasting metabolism refers to the heat production at specified times after

the last feeding.

B.M (Kcal) = 70W 0.75 Kg…this formula is used in adults whose growth
is complete...

Surface area heat loss law by Rubner…

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Protein requirement for Maintenance… The loss, which occurs through

urine, is known as EUN or endogenous urinary nitrogen loss and loss,
which occurs through faeces, is called MFN or Metabolic faecal nitrogen
loss.

EUN mg/d =146 W0.72kg…. EUN is 2.3 to 2.9 times the BMR

Hair loss …2.2 g N per day

Endogenous urinary nitrogen and metabolic faecal nitrogen put together

has come to 350 mg N/kg metabolic body size per day in ruminants.It is
two to three times as great as in non-ruminants.
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………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………..

Energy required for consumption and digestion of food, energy required

for the increased respiration and heart rate due to walking and other
movements, varying environmental temperatures are not accounted for
in the determinantion of basal heat production.The amount needed for
activity is known as activity increment. Adding factors such as activity
increment to the fasting metabolism to obtain the maintenance energy
requirement is called the factorial method of estimating requirements.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………….

Energy requirement for growth…is BMR + Activity increment+ energy

for growth

70% DE = NE,

80% DE = ME,… The ME was appoximated as 96% of the DE values in

pigs and 82% indairy cattle

1 Kg TDN = 4.4. MCal. DE

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………

the quantities of nutrients required in excess of those needed for

maintenance are small for the production of spermatozoa and ova,
moderate for the pregnancy and large for the lactation

Flushing…. Ewes are transferred from a maintenance level of feeding to a

higher level for 4-6 weeks,beginning 2-3 weeks before the start of the
breeding season. Flushing is also used to increase litter size in gilts, the
improved level feeding being imposed for about 10 days before first
mating…

‘steaming up’ cows by giving them increasing quantities of concentrates

before calving

Twin lamb disease or pregnancy toxemia……..due to glucose deficiency in

mother during pregnanacy….
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the main short-term factor affecting milk yield is the stage of lactation.

heats of combustion of milk fat, protein, and lactose are 9.29, 5.71 and
3.95Mcal/kg, respectively. The Net Energy for Lactation concentration
in milk is equivalent to the sum of the heats of combustion of individual
milk components (fat, protein, and lactose).

The net requirement for nitrogen for maintenance is that required to

replace the endogenous urinary loss (EUN) plus part of the metabolic
faecal nitrogen loss (MFN) plus loss of nitrogen in hair and scurf (D).
The total is termed the basal endogenous nitrogen (BEN)

Metabilisable protein requirement for milk production in goats is 47g

per kg… AND 345 g TDN…

Keratin in wool is made from cysteine which is produced from another

amino acid methionine…for wool production they need proteins which
are rumen undegraded such as casein…..

If supply of energy is inadequate the fat is drawn first and protein at

last….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………..

A ration is the feed allowed for a given animal during a day of 24 hours.

The immunoglobulins are absorbed in the calves body by the process of

pinocytosis.colustrum is rich in vitamin A…

Three phases in calves…..LIQUID FEEDING PHASE… Calf nonruminant

phase…o to 3 weeks…abomasum occupies major portion…60 perent..

TRANSITION phase….2 to 12 weeks of age…

RUMINANT PHASE>..rumen consist of 85 prcent……

Secretions from the second to the eighth milking (fifth day of lactation)
are called transitional milk…protein content of colostrum 17
%...antibodies 6%...fibre can be started minimum at 15 days of age…..

Milk replacer is fed to calves as early as at 10 days of age to replace milk

from economic point of view.
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CALF STARTER 25 cp and 75 TDN

Puberty occurs at a particular live weight rather than at a fixed age

Calf should br fed 2.5 % dry matter…..similar in goats and sheep.. Dry
matter in green fodder = 25 %

Heifer dcp 15%....tdn 75

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…….

FEEDING OF MILCH COWS>>>>Dry matter 2.5%

Bufallo 3%

In high yielders about 8% of the total protein requirement should be in

the form of 'bypass protein'. The DCP requirement for manitenance is
2.84 g /kg W0.75 The energy requirements for maintenance are
calculated using 122 kcal of ME /kg W0.75 (33.74 g TDN) for cattle and
buffaloes.

AZOLLA contain 25 % cp
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In case of cattle, for every 1 kg of milk production, 0.4 kg of concentrates

should be given.

In case of buffaloes, for every 1 kg of milk production, 0.5 kg of

concentrates should be given.

Challenge feeding or lead feeding starts two weeks before the expected
date of calving (Steaming up). Feeding concentrate mixture should be
started initially at 500 g per day and increase it gradually to a level of
500 -1000g per 100 kg body weight.This is used in high milk producing
animals…

Bypass protein….that escape rumen digestion…also called rumen

protected….

MILK FAT BOOSTER…….Cp 36….EE….10….

Dry period—60 to 14 days before the next lactation….. Transition or

close-up period—14 days before to parturition.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………

Phase 1 of lactation is 0 to 70 days…. Peak milk production occurs at 6 to

8 weeks after calving… dietary energy is the most limiting factor in milk
production during this phase and body weight decreases during this
phase as feed intake is lowww….

Phase 2 …peak dry matter intake.4% dry matter…….70 to 140….

Phase 3 ..mid to late….140 to 305 days…..

TDN

– 75 % of dietary DM

- 65 % of dietary DM

- 55 % of dietary DM

CP…. Early lactation 16 - 18 %

Mid lactation 14 - 16 %

Late lactation 12 - 14 %
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Dry period 10 - 12 %..................... two

third of increase in milk yield is due to adequate protein and one-third is

a result of optimum energy in the rations.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….

SHEEP

Lambs require 4-5 percent dry matter…..1st limiting AA….Methionine….

Nitrogen : Sulphur ratio should be maintained as 10:1. As a thumb rule a

non-pregnant, non-lactating ewe requires 10 gm TDN per kg live body
weight for maintenance and wool production.

Sheep consume more Sodium chloride per 100 kg body weight than do
cattle.

Lambs upto 12 weeks of age, suckling the sheep should be supplemented

with creep ration which they start to consume at about 2 weeks of age..
DCP 18-20 % and TDN 70-75% …….

Fats: A minimum of 3% fat in sheep rations is essential. Salt is added at

0.5% to complete diet or 1% to the concentrate mixture.

Flushing is the special nutritional care for improving nutritional status of

ewes 3-4 weeks before mating by providing additional concentrate
mixture.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………..

GOAT

On an average an adult goat needs about 3kg dry matter/100 kg body

weight for maintenance, 3.5 to 4 kg for growth, 3-3.5 kg during
pregnancy, 3.5-5.5 kg for lactation and 2.5 to 3.5 kg for meat and hair
production. An average energy requirement for maintenance is 101 kcal
ME/kgv W0.75/day.While for pregnancy it is 180 kcal ME/kg
W0.75/day…The daily energy requirement for milk production is found
to be 1220 kcal/ME/kg for 4% fat corrected milk (FCM).

Grower …65 percent TDN and 12 % cp….

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Finisher…. 6 % cp and 65 % TDN

male and female kids are selected for breeding purpose are called as
replacement stock.

/………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………

UREA

Generally speaking, urea is not used in amounts higher than 3% of the

total concentrate fed or 1% of the total dry matter in the ration to avoid
urea toxicity.Addition…. Dry roughage (straw) @4% of straw

Succulent roughage(Silage) @0.5% of wet material… During urea

treatment of straw, water: urea ratio should be 10:1… Starch: Urea ratio
in the diet should be 10:1… Rumen bacteria are unable to use NH3
effectively if:-(a) Diet contain CP>13% or (b) Rumen NH3 concentration
>5-8mg/100ml…. Adaptation period of rumen microbes to dietary urea
is 2-4 weeks… Urea toxicity results when rumen NH3 concentration
exceeds 80mg/100ml (or) when blood NH3 concentration exceeds
1mg/100ml

UROMOL…. Solution of urea (Uromol), containing molasses as the

energy source and carrying a variable amount of mineral and vitamin
supplementation

Urea molasses mineral block moisture percent should be less than 10…

Only used in ruminants…urea should always be supplied with an energy

source like starch,,,,

BIURET

Biuret is produced by heating urea. It is a colourless, crystalline

compound with the following formula.

NH2-Co-NH-Co-NH2…………….. It contains 40.8% nitrogen, equivalent

to 255% of crude protein……

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………..
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Gestation ration: during last trimester of pregnancy….For Zebu Cattle:

1.25 Kg concentrate……… For Buffalo & Cross-bred cow: 1.75 Kg
concentrate

CATTLE FEED….BIS Type-I (Gold ) CP 22 CF 7……BIS Type-

II(General) CP 20 CF 12

Water, protein& ash content of a fat-free animal body are in the ratio of
19:5:1..

“System of analysis” proposed by Henneberg & Stohmann at Weende

experimental station,

Straw contain 10% water…

ASH…Muffle furnace (600 C for 2 hours)

The detergent method of forage analysis/Van-Soest method:-

NFE is only proximate principle that cannot be determined by

analysis…This INCLUDE Portion of carbohydrate which is easily
digestible ex.- monosaccharides,…disaccharides

Crude protein = True Protein + Non-Protein Nitrogen…..

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For estimating protein content of the feed, Stutzer‟s reagent (alkaline

CuSO4) is used.

DE×0.82 = ME

1 Kg TDN = 0.86 Starch Equivalent

0.32Kg TDN is required by a cow for 1 litre of milk production

Calf starter contains 18.5-19.5%DCP, 23-26% CP & 75% TDN

……..

Site of absorption of AA is in ileum in case of ruminants…duodenum and

jejunum in non rumi…Fat absporption at jejunum..

Net gain of ATPs by complete oxidation of one mole of

substance

Glucose (aerobic ox

Precurser of Glucose…propionate/…………….Vit C …hexose Sugar..

cholesterol ..Acetyl COA…………………………PG..arachidonic acid…………..

VIT D,STEROID
hormons…Cholesterol…………….Catecholamine…tyrosine

RUMEN

Ph 6.7… temp…39 degree… Gas production CO2: CH4 (65: 35)

Acetate : Propionate : Butyrate (65 : 20 : 10)

Ruminal microbial population(per ml of rumen liquor) Bacteria ten

raised to 11, Protozoa(10^6 ), Fungi (10^3),Bacteriophage(10^9)

Mostly bacteria are gram (−) ve & obligate anaerobes. However,

lactic acid producing bacteria are facultative anaerobes.. The majority
are ciliate protozoa. The ruminal microbial population is decided by
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protozoa because protozoa eat on bacteria… Mostly flagellated fungi

..break lingo cellulosic bond…

Defaunation: Selective removal of protozoa from the ruminal

ecosystem…..Chemical defaunation: Copper sulfate & Sodium lauryl
sulfate….

Acetate: It is responsible for milk fat synthesis/..seen in roughage

diet..………… Propionate: It is gluconeogenic. It is responsible for milk
sugar synthesis seen in high grain , concentrate diet…… Butyrate:
Ruminal epithelial cells convert it into β-hydroxy butyrate (a ketone
body)

DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES, PROTEIN AND FAT IN

NON-RUMINANTS

Fibres contain a β-acetal bond between carbons 1 and 4 for which

mammals do not produce the enzyme to hydrolyze it…in starch it is
alpha acetal or glycosidic bond and can be hydrolysed….

The molecule of glycogen is started with a nucleus called glycogenin that

serves as the initial anchor for the growing chains.

The sequence of amino acids in the molecule determines the primary

structure. The spatial arrangement that the protein adopts, based on
other forces or bonds, determines the secondary structure. The final rigid
compact structure that the protein adopts after other chains have bound
to it determines the tertiary structure of the protein. The term
conformation is used to describe the combined secondary and tertiary
structure.

Digestion starts in mouth and mainly produce maltose by action of alpha

amylase on starch….alpha amylase is absent in carnivores… Calves and
other lactating animals produce lingual lipase, an enzyme which starts
the process of lipid digestion

There are two steps , luminal digestion and membraneous digestion…..

The final step in digestion takes place in the membranous phase of
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digestion for carbohydrates and proteins. As a result the

monosaccharides glucose, fructose, galactose, etc. are generated, as are,
amino acids, di and tripeptides.

MEMBRANEOUS PHASE…….Enzymes bound to enterocyte’s apical

membrane o Lactase o Sucrase o Maltase

-dextrinase (o Maltotriase o Isomaltase)

Glucose is metabolized in three stages in carbohydrate metabolism. They

are…

1. Glycolysis

2. Krebs Cycle

3. Oxidative phosphorylation and ETC

GLYCO1LYSIS…in cytosol….glucose forms two three carbon pyruvate

molecules and 2 ATP through 10 step reaction… The most important
enzyme in glycolysis is called phosphofructokinase (PFK)and catalyzes
the third reaction in the sequence. Since this reaction is so favorable
under physiologic conditions, it is known as the “committed step” in
glycolysis. In other words, glucose will be completely degraded to
pyruvate after this reaction has taken place…
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Fructose 6 phosphate is converted to fructose 1 6 bi phosphate by the

action of phosphor fructo kinase……later aldolase act upon this to form 1
molecule of dihydroxy acetone phosphate and 2 molecules
glycerandehyde 3 phosphate….

2.KREBS CYCLE: Kreb’s Cycle is the central metabolic cycle of the

Carbohydrate metabolism and all metabolic pathways.Also called citric
acid cycle or TCA cycle… The Krebs Cycle begins when the pyruvate
formed in the cytoplasm of the cell during glycolysis is transferred to the
mitochondria, where most of the energy inherent in glucose is extracted.
In the mitochondria, pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA by the enzyme
pyruvate carboxlase.later Oxalo acetate is formed along with 3 mol of
NADH2, 1 mol FADH2 and 1 mol GTP…. Thus, a total of 12 ATP are
produced from one acetyl CoA…. Oxidation of 3 NADH by ETC coupled
with oxidative phosphorylation results in the synthesis of 9ATP….
FADH2 leads to the formation of 2ATP…… One substrate level
phosphorylation.

3. OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION / ELECTRON

TRANSPORT CHAIN:

Three complexes work in sequence to harvest the energy in NADH and

FADH2 and convert it to ATP: NADH-Q reductase, cytochrome
reductase and cytochrome oxidase… The final electron acceptor in the
electron transport chain is oxygen.

PROTEIN DIGESTION… The process of protein digestion is similar to

that used for carbohydrates. They both have a luminal phase, which
generates smaller polypeptides and a membranous phase, which
completes the digestion. enzymes involved are all secreted as
proenzymes in order to protect the tissue that synthesizes them. The
digestion of proteins only starts in the stomach. all proteolytic enzymes
are secreted as zymogens, that is, inactive enzymes. The HCl secreted in
the stomach activates pepsin and chymosin from pepsinogen and
chymosinogen, respectively. These are two gastric endopeptidases, or
enzymes produced in the stomach,. Once the chyme moves to the
duodenum the acidity activates enterokinase which in turn activates the
zymogen trypsinogen to trypsin. Trypsin activates the other pancreatic
117 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

produced zymogens to chemotrypsin, elastase, and carboxypeptidase A

and B. Trypsin, chemotrypsin and elastase are all endopeptidases, while
the two carboxypeptidases are exopeptidases, or enzymes that hydrolyze
the last amino acid in a peptide. The membranous digestion for proteins
is again similar to that of carbohydrates, with the difference being that
the proteases bound to the enterocytes do not always divide the chains
into single amino acids and di or tripeptides can be absorbed by
enterocytes

Fat digestion: Entering the small intestine, the bile acids from
the liver or gallbladder completely emulsify the fat generating
small droplets containing triglycerides, cholesterol,
cholesterol esters and phospholipids. Once the fat droplets are
formed these are attacked by two pancreatic enzymes which work in
association. The pancreatic co-lipase displaces the bile acids coating the
droplet, thus generating an area where the other enzyme, the pancreatic
lipase, can access the triglycerides and hydrolyze two of the fatty acids
leaving a monoglyceride… At the same time, other components of the
droplet are hydrolyzed by other types of pancreatic lipases, particularly
cholesterol esterase and phospholipase. The results of this hydrolysis are
cholesterol, nonesterified fatty acids and lysophospholipids. All of these
compounds are then released into the lumen of the intestine where they
are rapidly grouped and coated with bile salts and phospholipids to form
micelles in preparation for absorption

Fatty acid catabolism………

Lipolysis, the removal of the fatty acid chains from the glycerol to which
they are bound in their storage form as triglycerides (or fats), is carried
out by lipases. These lipases are activated by high epinephrine and
glucagon levels in the blood (or norepinephrine secreted by sympathetic
nerves in adipose tissue), caused by declining blood glucose levels after
meals, which simultaneously lowers the insulin level in the blood. The
freed ,Long chain free fatty acids enter the metabolizing cells (i.e. most
living cells in the body except red blood cells and neurons in the central
nervous system) through specific transport proteins, such as the SLC27
family fatty acid transport protein.Red blood cells do not contain
mitochondria and are therefore incapable of metabolizing fatty acids; the
118 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

tissues of the central nervous system cannot use fatty acids, despite
containing mitochondria, because fatty acids cannot cross the blood
brain barrier into the interstitial fluids that bathe these cells.

Fatty acid forms acyl CoA.. In order for the acyl-CoA to enter the
mitochondrion the carnitine shuttle is used…in the mitochondrial matrix
B oxidation takes place… long carbon chains of the fatty acids in the form
of acyl-CoA molecules is cut into a series of two-carbon (acetate) units
which, combined with co-enzyme A, form molecules of acetyl CoA,… this
reaction as marking the "starting point" of the cycle, as this is when fuel -
acetyl-CoA - is added to the cycle, which will be dissipated as CO2 and
H2O with the release of a substantial quantity of energy captured in the
form of ATP, during the course of each turn of the cycle. the reducing
agent is NADPH, whereas NAD is the oxidizing agent in beta-oxidation…
The acetyl-CoA produced by β-oxidation enters the citric acid cycle in the
mitochondrion by combining with oxaloacetate to form citrate. This
results in the complete combustion of the acetyl-CoA to CO2 and water.
The energy released in this process is captured in the form of 1 GTP and
11 ATP molecules per acetyl-CoA molecule oxidized. The glycerol
released by lipase action is phosphorylated by glycerol kinase in the liver
(the only tissue in which this reaction can occur), and the resulting
glycerol 3-phosphate is oxidized to dihydroxyacetone phosphate. The
glycolytic enzyme triose phosphate isomerase converts this compound to
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, which is oxidized via glycolysis, or
converted to glucose via gluconeogenesis.

DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES, PROTEIN AND FAT IN

RUMINANTS

amount of saliva produced per day are 150 L in cattle and 10 l in sheep…

Digestion of carbohydrates in rumen:In the first stage it is similar to non

ruminants and is coverted finally to pyruvate……later in 2nd stage VFA s
are formed…. The acetic acid is predominant and represent 60-70 per
cent, propionic acid 15-20 per cent and butyric acid 10-15 % of the fatty
acid mixtures. On an exclusive roughage diet the production of acetic
acid is highest. As the concentrates in the diet are increasedthe
proportion of acetic acid reduces and that of propionic acid increases.
Methane formed is about 4.5 g per 100 g of carbohydrate digested.
Methane accounts 30 – 40 % of total gas mixture…
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Energy is either released from the system or fed into the system for the
reactions to take place. The reactions are termed as exergonic and
endergonic reactions accordingly…

Net ATP in glycolysis== 6

Net ATP in TCA= 12

2 acetyl CoA to CO2 and H2O 24 mol of ATP

ATP produced under aerobic glycolysis : 6 ATP

ATP Produced under anaerobic glycolysis: 2 ATP

Total ATP = 38 mol

Total energy relased in the conversion of glucose to CO2 and water is 673
Kcal/mol.

Mol. Weight of glucose is 180.2

So Gross energy value glucose 673/180.2 = 3.74 kcal/g

Alternate aerobic pathway ie pentose phosphate pathway/ hexose

monophasphate shunt/ warboag Dickens pathway/ warboag Dicken’s-
lipmann oxidative shunt / Pentose shunt. Happens in Adipose tissue,
liver, mammary gland, foetal cardiac muscle, cornea, lens of eye and
erythrocytes.

There is net gain of 18 moles of ATP per mole of propionic acid.

of 27 moles of ATP per mole of butyric acid.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------

When poor quality and inadequate protein are fed to the animals, the
micro organism can synthesize better amino acid composition into their
own bodies which are available to the animals.therefore, it would be
advantageous. When high quality protein and in higher amount are fed
to theanimals there may be more loss of nitrogen through urea and thus
120 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

the amino acid mixture available to the animals may be poorer than what
was in diet.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------- Digestion of lipids in ruminants: lipids are an important part
of the ration of dairy cows because they contribute directly to about 50%
of the fat in milk and they are the most concentrated source of energy in
feed. The basic structure of triglycerides consist of one unit of glycerol (a
3 carbon sugar) and three units of fatty acids . Glycolipids form a second
class of lipids found primarily in forage (grasses and legumes). These
compounds have a structure similar to the triglycerides except that one
of the three fatty acid has been replaced by a sugar (usually galactose).
Excess lipids in the diet (more that 8%) may have a negative effect on
milk production and fat percentage in the milk. Unsaturated lipids have
a more negative effect than saturated lipids. In contrast to most nutrients
absorbed from the gastro intestinal tract,the absorbed lipids enter the
general circulation directly and are used by all body tissues without a
preliminary processing by the liver.

PROCESSING OF FEEDS …

Grain processing may be divided into two categories:

A. Dry Processing methods:
1) Grinding 2) Dry rolling 3) Popping
4) Extruding 5) Micronizing 6) Roasting
B. Wet processing methods:
1) Soaking 2) Steam rolling 3) Steam processing & Flaking
4) Pressure coking 5) Exploding 6) Pelleting
7) Reconstitution

Grinding: Grinding is a process of particle size reduction. Medium fine grinding is

best. During very fine grinding the propionic acid content is increased, the ratio of
acetate to propionate is altered and is narrowed resulting in reduced fat content of
milk in milch animals. But in beef cattle the propionate helps in better fattening and
increased growth rate.

Dry Rolling…. Grains passed through smooth rollers are often called being cracked
whereas grains passed through corrugated rollers are said to be crimped.

Popping or puffing: Popping is produced by the action of dry heat (700-8000F or

370-4250C) for 15 to 30 seconds causing a sudden expansion of the grain which
rupture the endosperm and these results in rupture of starch granules and makes the
121 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

starch more available to the rumen microorganisms and/or to the animal. Popped
grains will have less moisture (3%) and will be bulky.

Extruding: It is a high temperature short time (HTST) process. Its main effects are
cooking and texturizataion.Texturization: Means starch gelitization and protein
denaturation.

Micronizing: It is similar to popping except that heat is furnished in the form of

infra-red energy

Roasting: It is accomplished by passing the grain through flame resulting in heating

to about 3000F (148.90C) and some expansion of the grains.. Moisture content of
the grain is 5%. Roasting of whole soybeans inactivates enzymes or inhibitory factors
which improves the nutritive value for poultry and swine.

B. Wet Processing Methods

1. Soaking: Grains soaked for 12-24 hrs in water

3. Steam processing and flaking: This procedure involves steam conditioning at

atmospheric pressure for 10 to 20 minutes prior to rolling grains. Difference between
steam rolling and steam processing and flaking is that the moisture content of the
grains while steaming is controlled at 18-20% in steam processing and flaking.

Exploding: It is accomplished by subjecting the grain to high pressure steam (250 psi
ie.17.58 kg/cm2) for about a very short time (20 sec.) followed by sudden decrease to
atmospheric pressure.

Reconstitution: Reconstituted grain is mature grain (10% moisture) to which water is

added to raise the moisture level to 25-30% and the wet product is stored in an
oxygen limiting structure for 14-21 days prior to feeding. Reconstitution of grain
increases the solubility of the grain protein.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------

TEARTNES….molybdenum

Type 1 mixture calcium percentage is 18 percent

Kunitz inhibitor present in legume seed is trypsin

AIV method of silage making by Virtanen…it is based on the theory that when ph
goes below 4 there will be no destruction of proteins or vitamins…ph value is
reduced using H2SO4 and HCl…

Fumosinins cause blind staggers

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Rumen bacteria 10 raised to 10 per ml….protozoa 10 raised to 6…fungi 10 raised to 3

Precursor of oxalic acid…vit c

Ratio of N;S in feed 10:1

Internal markers….silica, lignin .,,AIA

Surplus colostrum, hay is stored by using propionic acid…

Rumen protozoa identified by gruby and delafond

Conc of ammoniackel nitrogen in good silage…10 to 15 percent

Reference material for bomb calorimetry….benzoic acid…

Olive green discolouration of yolk is due to gossypol…

Brix inderx measures specific gravity,,,,,,,,it is used to check quality of molasses…

Coumestans are found in beans,,,…

Hemlock is a source of coniine…

Maximum inclusion of urea in concentrate mix is 3 percent vand in complete diet is 1

%

Vitamins for propionate metabolism…..vit B 12 and Biotin

Catfish feeds are produced by extruding

Creep feeding in pig….during pre weaning

Electron sink in fermentive digestion…pyruvate

Gliadin is seen in wheat…

Niacin…NADPC…..

thiamin …co carboxylase

riboflavin ………FAD

calcium can induce zinc deficiency in poultry , swine if fed more, as availability
decreases….

Glucogenic VFA propionic acid

RUSITEc….czerkawski and Breckenridge

Oat hay poisoning is caused by nitrates

Alumino silicates are used to binding micotoxins in feed

123 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

Body condition of animals was studied by laws and gilbert

Roughages,,,,maintenance….dcp 3 to 5

Productive more than 5 dcp……non maintenance less than 3 DCP

Phaseolunatin a cyanogenic glycoside is seen in cassava, linseed , java beans

Tying up in horse…vit E

Nutrient requirement in poultry…

CP…
Pigs - preweaning/creep feed 18-22…………. Weaned pigs 16……………
Lactating sow 15
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As per the NRC 0.5% common salt is recommended in rations of all classes

supplied in the form of iodised salt.

Piglet anaemia is seen in piglets, housed in concrete floors under intensive
farming system. The condition is called as "thumps". At birth, piglets contains
50 mg iron. The daily requirement is 7 mg and about 1 mg is supplied in daily
sow milk consumed by the piglet. This deficit of 6mg/day will exhaust the
body stores within a week if iron is not provided. This condition can be
prevented by giving iron orally or by injections. Iron dextrose 100 mg on third
day of birth followed by 50 mg on 21 day prevents anaemia

The losses of body protein in the animal when kept on a protein

free ration occurs through urine and faeces in negligible amount,
through shedding of hairs, loss of nail, skin etc. The loss, which
occurs through urine, is known as EUN or endogenous urinary
nitrogen loss . The loss, which occurs through faeces, is called MFN
or Metabolic faecal nitrogen loss.
EUN Here the loss of nitrogen is due to the catabolism that occurs
for the maintenance of the vital tissues of the body, which can be
measured at the minimum urinary excretion on a nitrogen free
otherwise adequate (particularly energy adequacy) diet. The
quantity of nitrogen thus lost through urine will be dependent on
the body size.
MFN Faecal nitrogen consists of two parts; undigested food
nitrogen and another part known as MFN, which comprises
residues, originated from the body, eg. Residues of bile, digestive
enzymes, epithelial cells derived from the alimentary tract and
undigested bacteria. Metabolic faecal nitrogen unlike EUN is not
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proportional to body weight but this value is dependent on the dry

matter intake.

Total digestible protein = (EUN + MFN + S) x 6.25 x ( 100 / BV)

S - the loss of nitrogen in hair BV - biological value of protein

The point from which the growth begins to slow down in a growth curve
is the inflexion point.

The increase in growth of an animal over a unit time is called absolute

growth.

The relative increase in growth over unit time is relative growth.

Extra-uterine growth during pregnancy is called pregnancy anabolism…

During pregnancy ,,maintenance requirement is 80 percent….15 percent

for mother weight gain and 5 % for embryo growth…

EGG PRODUCTION,, ,

eggs weigh on average 56 g and have an energy value of about 0.375 MJ

Metabolisable energy requirement for egg production = (fasting

metabolism + Energy required for production of egg + energy required
for body gain) x 0.8.
Protein requirement egg laying = (maintenance requirement + protein content of 1 egg)
x 100/efficiency %

WORK

For light work the animal requires 20% more than the maintenance
needs.

For moderate work the animal requires 40% more than the maintenance

For heavy work the animal requires 60% more than the maintenance
126 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

For very heavy work the animal requires 100% more than the
maintenance needs

Rations can be prepared by several methods that include o Pearson

Square Method… It satisfies only one nutrient requirement and uses
only two feed ingredients. The limitation however is that the level of
nutrient being computed should be intermediate between the nutrient
concentration of the two feed ingredients being used.

o Two-by-two Matrix method

o Trial and Error Method This is the most popular method of

formulating rations for swine and poultry.time consuming

o Linear Programming (LP)… This is a method of determining the

least-cost combination of ingredients using a series of mathematical
equations. It is a choice for the commercial feed Millers who handle large
no of ingredients. It eliminates human error both in calculation and in
speed

Rations with high fiber content cannot be tolerated by poultry and swine.

Feedings standards are the tables, which indicate the quantities of

nutrients to be fed to the various classes of livestock for different
physiological functions like growth, maintenance, lactation and egg
production. The nutrient allowance gives an extra allowance of
nutrient over the requirement, which gives a margin of safety. Nutrient
requirement gives the requirement for optimum production.
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The common feeding standards used for monogastrics is NRC feeding

standars in USA and many other countries and in India we follow Bureau
of Indian standards… The NRC standards express energy requirement as
metabolisable energy for poultry, digestible energy for swine and horses..

Indian standards India has been almost entirely dependent on

standards drawn up by late F. B. Morrison. Dr. K. C. Sen had compiled
the feeding standards on Morrison’s recommendations where he
adopted the average of maximum and minimum values recommended by
Morrison.

BIS….These standards have been specified for Swine, Poultry and certain
laboratory animals. Energy is expressed as ME kcal/kg. Protein
expressed as crude protein.

FEEDING OF PIGS…
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As their colon and caecum are flexible , pigs can tolerate crude fibre in
their diet to a greater extent than carnivorous animals but to a lesser
extent than herbivorous species. Large scale pork producers prefer dry
feeding whereas Pigs generally like wet feed,. Full feeding by hand or self
feeding is better than restricter or controlled feeding in pigs…. Pigs can
tolerate upto 1% salt in water. The practice of self feeding of concentrates
to young ones away from their mother is called as "Creep Feeding". In
pigs, it is given from second week of age. Creep feed should contain 19-
20% CP and 3360 kcal/kg of ME.major portion is animal origin.. Dry
creep feed are called as pre-starter feed.

Starter Ration,…. It should contain 20% crude protein an 3170 kcal/kg of

ME

Grower Ration When pigs attains a body weight of 55 kg they can be

16% CP and should contain 3170 kcal/kg ME.

Gestation, breeding boar… During first two-third period of gestation, a

ration with 14% CP should be fed whereas during last third of gestation
ration should contain 16% CP. The ration shuld have 3265 kcal/kg of
ME. Pregnant sow are fed 3-4 kg feed per day per sow.

Lactation.. The ration should contain around 18% crude protein, ME

3265kcal/kg ..

Fine grinding of feeds for pig is not recommended because such feed
sticks to the feeder and there is increased incidence of gastric ulcers.
Coarse grinding of cereals and millets is profitable than to feed them as a
whole. Pelleting of feed is profitable if a ration is high in crude fibre
content.

Feeding of Horses…..

Salt should be supplied freely to working horses because considerable

quantities are excreted in sweat… The dry matter intake of horses is 1.5–
2.5% of their body weight per day… The Creep feed should provide 75 %
TDN and 16 % crude protein and should be prepared from highly
digestible ingredients.can be given after one and a half months…. The
lactating mare needs three times more calcium and two and a half times
more phosphorus as needed in early gestation.
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FEEDING OF POULTRY

poultry need about twice as much water as feed

Under choice feeding or ‘free-choice feeding’ birds are usually offered a

choice between three types of feedstuffs: An energy source ,A protein
source plus vitamins and minerals and In the case of laying hens,
calcium in granular form

Lipids constitute the main energetic source for poultry and they have the
highest caloric value among all the nutrients.

the Ideal Protein Concept used in poultry is providing the right quantity
and balance of amino acids that helps to improve nitrogen utilisation.

Phase feeding was first proposed in the 1960s by Dr. G.F.

Combs.. This was the term that was given to the program of reducing
the protein level in the feed as the hen aged.

Restricted feeding is practiced in pullets to delay onset of sexual

maturity, so that egg size can be improved and uniform sized eggs can be
got from a flock. Restricted feeding is also practiced to bring about
forced moulting in layers at the end of the laying period…. To induce
moult, a producer may use a period of fasting and a reduced amount of
daylight, giving the birds water and allowing them to lose a proportion of
their body weight..

Layers need 4 - 5 g of calcium per day from first egg throughout the
laying period. The metabolic requirement for calcium occurs mainly
during the night when the egg shell is formed. Feeding the additional
grit in the afternoon will provide the bird with calcium during the night
when it is needed most…

The time of day when the egg is laid will also determine the thickness of
the shell. The earlier in the day or light portion of the photoperiod the
thicker the shell will be. Normal cholesterol content of eggs (about 200-
250 mg)

'diet egg' or the 'functional egg'…they are Omega 3 designer egg…has

high vit E also
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A breeder diet with an energy density of approximately 2750 Kcal/Kg

should have a protein content of 15%. Excess protein reduces fertility.
Normally an adult cock consumes 130-160 grams feed /day

Feed efficiency or feed conversion ratio = feed intake/weight gain or…. feed intake/
weight (in g or kg) of dozen eggs produced in layers
…………… The single largest factor affecting feed efficiency is energy level
of the feed.

The feed efficiency of female broilers will usually be higher (less

efficient) than male birds of corresponding weight, after about 30 days of
age. The reason for this is that female birds tend to deposit
proportionally more fat in the carcass. Therefore it is usually
uneconomical to grow female broilers much beyond 45 days .

Feed intake will increase by about 1% for each 1ºC below 20ºC. Between
20-25ºC, the bird will eat about 1% less per 1ºC increase in temperature,
and so here feed efficiency will improve. Above 25ºC (depending upon
acclimatization), heat stress conditions can occur, and here feed
efficiency will again deteriorate because now the bird is using energy to
stay cool (panting, etc.).

Salt…. The recommended level is 0.25 to 0.3% added salt

Synthetic cantaxanthin has been used for decades as active pigment to

provide a yellow-orange color to the broiler skin, and to provide intense
orange and even rose hues to egg… Traditional sources of yellow
xantophylls are: alfalfa, yellow corn, yellow corn gluten, and marigold
meal concentrates. There are also natural red sources as the capsanthin
(paprika or red pepper).

FEEDING OF DUCKS.

The digestive system of duck is slightly different from chicken in that

they do not have crop and their pro ventriculus is cylindrical and make
the feed passage rate quicker than that of chicken.
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Ducks can tolerate only 0.03 ppm of aflatoxin compared to chicken that
can tolerate upto 0.2 ppm. Rapeseed meal is another feedstuff that is
potentially toxic to ducks. Some older varieties of rapeseed meal contain
erucic acid and goitrogens at levels high enough to be harmful to poultry.
Ducks are much more sensitive to erucic acid than are chickens and
turkeys.

Ducks grow faster, and utilize their feed more efficiently, when fed
pelleted rations than when their feed is in mash form.

Main EAA in Pig: Lysine………. Main EAA in Poultry:

Glycine…. Main EAA in Sheep: Methionine……. Main EAA in
Cat: Taurine

EXTENSION
Entrepreneurship…………… Innovation is the specific tool of an
entrepreneur .p roblem solvers rather than problem avoiders.

……………………………………………………

factors of production….. Land, Labour, Capital and Organisation…. Land

is paid in terms of rent and labour is rewarded with wage while capital is
paid in terms of interest.

Entrepreneur/……..French verb entrepredre…. 'to undertake'

According to Peter F. Drucker, Entrepreneur searches for change,

responds to it and exploits opportunities.
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JOSEPH SCHUMPETER,,,,,,Entrepreneur is an individual who

introduces something new…

Clarence Danhof Classification:

1. Innovative entrepreneur… transformation in life style. aggressive

entrepreneur. introduces new combinations of factors of production

2. Imitative entrepreneur… adoptive entrepreneur… adopts

successful innovation introduced by other innovators

3. Fabian entrepreneur …. timid and cautious… sceptical in their

approach in adopting new technology in their enterprise.. They love to
remain in existing business with the age old technology of production.
They only adopt the new technology when they realised that failure to
adopt will lead to loss or collapse of the entreprise

4. Drone entrepreneur refuse to adopt the changes. conservative in

outlook…. Laggards… refuse to adopt changes in production even at the
risk of reduced returns.

Arthur H. Cole Classification:

1. Empirical entrepreneur …. hardly introduces anything

revolutionary

2. Rational entrepreneur informed about the general economic

conditions and introduces changes which looks more revolutionary.

3. Cognitive entrepreneur….. Cognitive entrepreneur is well

informed, draws upon the advice and services of experts and introduces
changes

Public sectors are more in underdeveloped and developing countries…

Inventors: These entrepreneurs primarily involve themselves in

Research and Development

Buyers (Entrepreneurs): These entrepreneurs explore opportunities to

purchase the existing units which may be seized or are in running
condition

Life timers: These entrepreneurs believe that business is the part and
parcel of their life.
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Integrity and reliability are the glue and fibre that bind successful
personal and business relationships and make them endure………….

Expectation which are expressed or so-called 'explicit' and those who are
not expressed by the customers or so-called 'implicit' expectations.

SCHOOL OF THOUGHT…..Devided into micro and macro view…

MACRO.. external factors that are sometimes beyond the control of the
individual entrepreneur,… 1. The environmental school of
thought,..Broadest and pervasive..Eg ..sociopolitical encironment…

2. The financial/capital school of thought, and

3. The displacement school of thought. The displacement school of

thought focuses on the negative side of group phenomena, in which
someone feels “out of place” or is literally “displaced” from the group.
Three major types of displacement include political, cultural and
economic displacement

MICRO

The micro view of entrepreneurship examines the factors that are

specific to entrepreneurship and are part of the internal locus of
control…

1. The Entrepreneurial Trait School of Thought… sometimes referred

to as the “people school of thought”…..By identifying traits
common to successful entrepreneurs And reciprocating it..
achievement, creativity, determination, and technical knowledge
are four factors that usually are exhibited by successful
entrepreneurs
2. The Venture Opportunity Schools of Thought… The search for idea
sources, the development of concepts,finding markets and the
implementation of venture opportunities are the important
interest areas for this school.
3. The Strategic Formulation School of Thought.. emphasizes the
planning process in successful venture development.

SOLE PROPRIETORSHIP…. Sole proprietorship is the easiest, oldest,

and most popular form of business to create. For tax and legal liability
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purpose, the owner and business is the same person. Tax rate is lower
than the corporate tax rate.. Little reporting is required, and government
regulation is minimal. Self employed people falls in thid
category…business dies when owner dies.

PARTNERSHIP…..2 or more person…. Business name must be

registered with the Registrar of Companies.3
types…public,private,private companies deemed to be public….

Private Limited Company……. Has a minimum paid-up share capital

of Rs.1 Lakh or higher… Limits the number of its members to 50 which
will not include employees or ex employees.. Restricts the right of
transfer of its share

Public Limited Company…… under section 3(1)(iv) of the Companies

Act, 1956.. Has a minimum paid-up capital of Rs. 5 lakhs or such higher
capital

Private Companies deemed to be Public Companies . When 25%

or more of its paid-up share capital is held by one or more body
corporate… When its average annual turnover (during the last 3 years)
exceeds Rs. 25 crores… When it accepts or renews deposits from the
public after making an invitation by an advertisement….

CORPORATION

A corporation is a business that is chartered or registered by the state

and that operates separately from the owner or owners. profits taxed
twice (the corporation is taxed and shareholder dividends are taxed)..
Comprised of three groups of people: shareholders, directors, officers

Limited Liability Corporations are the most recent form of business,

combining the best of both worlds (partnerships and corporations).Less
risk

Creativity is the ability to bring something new into existence.

The creative process for an idea contains five stages – germination,
preparation, incubation, illumination, and verification.incubation is the
stage of mulling it over…

Illumination… idea resurfaces as a realistic creation

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Verification… refines knowledge into application..

A new venture goes through three specific phase: pre start-up, start-up,
and post start-up… The post start-up phase lasts until the venture is
terminated or the surviving organizational entity is no longer controlled
by the entrepreneur.

Entrepreneurs are more likely to emerge from permissive middle class

families.

……………………………………………………………………………………..

Interpersonal communication is the primary means of managerial

communication. One type of communication travels from individual to
individual in face-to-face and group settings.

Interpersonal Communication

Façade can be corrected by Exposure and blindspot by Feedback…

…………………………………………………………………….

SMALL INDUSTRIES DEVELOPMENT ORGANISATION

(SIDO) 1954

The National Small Industries Corporation Ltd ,1955

THE KHADI AND VILLAGE INDUSTRIES COMMISSION

(KVIC) 1957

NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR SMALL INDUSTRY EXTENSION

TRAINING (NISIET) 1960
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The National Institute for Entrepreneurship and Small Business

Development (NIESBUD) was established in 1983…In NOIDA…UP… An
apex body established by Ministry of Industries

The Entrepreneurship Development Institute of India

(EDI)1983…gandhi nagar…Gujarat

Indian Institute of Entrepreneurship (IIE) 1983…Guwahati…ASSAM

Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI) was established in

April 1990

National Institute of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (NIMSME),

Hyderabad

National Institute of Rural Development, Hyderabad

/………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……..

A project is a specific plan or design presented for consideration. A

scientifically evolved work plan Devised to achieve specific objectives…
The crux of the project lies in the problem formulation process. The
project plan is the blue print of the project.

change in cash flows as a result of undertaking the project….. differential

principle.

The economic life of a project is the lesser of its physical life,

technological life or product-market life. Physical Life - Physical life
represents the time taken for an asset to become physically worn out so
that it can no longer be efficiently maintained and must be replaced.
Technological Life -Technological life is the period of time that elapses
before an even newer machine or process becomes available which would
make the proposed machine or process obsolete.

Prime Minister’s Employment Generation Programme (PMEGP) in

2008 by merging the two schemes namely Prime Minister’s Rojgar
Yojana (PMRY) and Rural Employment Generation Programme (REGP)
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SHG is a small group of rural poor, who have voluntarily come forward
to form a group for improvement of the social and economic status of the
members.

Market Study - A market study forecasts sales revenue through the life of
a project.

Fixed investments consist of all the costs necessary to bring the project
to full operation.

EVALUATION TECH FOR CAPITAL EXPENDITURE PROJECT….

Undiscounted measures and discounted measures…

Undiscounted measures…simple techniques… They don't consider the

time value of money and simply compare the cost and returns and rank
the project. The three important undiscounted measures are….Pay back
period……… Proceeds per rupee of outlay///… Average annual proceeds
per rupee of outlay…. The major draw back of the undiscounted
measures is that for the same data of the project, we will get different
rankings depending upon the measure. Thus undiscounted measures are
inconsistent and incompatible in ranking.

Payback period refers to the period of time required for the return on an
investment to 'repay' the sum of the original investment..

DISCOUNTED MEASURES They take into account of the time value of

money… The discounted cash flows are the best estimates to measure the
worth of the projects.The three important discount rate measures
are…Net Present Worth (NPW)…………..Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR),……
Internal rate of Returns (IRR)

The Net Present Worth which is also called as Net Present Value (NPV)
is nothing but the present value/worth of the cash flow stream in the
project…The cash flow in the project is the difference between cash
inflow and cash outflow.

Benefit Cost Ratio is worked out by dividing the present value of cash
inflows by the present value of cash outflows./….If the BCR is more than
one, that project is accepted and if BCR is less than one the project is
rejected.
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Internal Rate of returns … It is the rate of return per rupee invested in an

agricultural project over its life span.

For a project to be viable it should have a BCR of one or greater than one
at the opportunity cost of capital and a NPW of zero or greater than zero
at the opportunity cost of capital and the discount rate for IRR should be
greater than the opportunity cost.

……………………………………………………………………………..

3Rs of credit… Returns…. Repayment capacity….. Risk bearing ability

Repayment capacity is the test of economic feasibility.. It determines the

amount the farmer will be able to spare for repayment of loan

3 C's OF CREDIT … character, capacity and capital. Capital

reflects the net worth of the borrower (assets minus liabilities) which
also reflects his repayment and risk bearing ability.

LOAN REPAYMENT.. 4 types…

Straight end repayment or lumpsum repayment…The entire loan is paid
on the expiry of the term but the interest on the loan is paid each year.

Partial repayment or variable repayment…. A part of the loan together

with a part of the interest on the loan is paid up every year.

Amortized even repayment…An equal amount is repaid every year… The

method of payment is suitable when income is likely to flow at a constant
rate throughout the period.

Amortized decreasing repayment… The amount of the principal remains

constant and the share of interest declines with every installment of
repayment.

FINANCIAL STATEMENT through balance sheet , profit and loss

statement ,cash flow statement….

A balance sheet is a summary statement of all the assets and liabilities of

a business at a given point of time.prepared at the end of financial year…
Balance sheet is also known as Net Worth statement. the assets are listed
on the left hand side and liabilities are listed on the right hand side. at
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the bottom of right hand side of balance sheet Net worth or Equity is
mentioned,,, Generally the left hand side values are equal or balances the
right hand side values and hence this statement is called as Balance
sheet.

The most liquid current asset is cash in hand and the least liquid current
asset is inventory…. The most liquid current liability is money at call and
the least liquid asset is long term loans.

Net worth or equity is the difference between the total assets and total
liabilities in the business.

TEST RATIOS ,….. The balance sheet is analysed by estimating various

ratios to understand the exact financial position and stability of the farm
business….this include..

Current Ratio…..Current Ratio = Total current assets/ Total current

liabilities…….. Current ratio indicates the capacity of the farmer to meet
immediate financial obligations (liquidity).

Intermediate or working Ratio….. Intermediate Ratio =Total current

assets+Total intermediate assets/ Total current liabilities+ Total
intermediate liabilities.
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Net Capital Ratio………. Net Capital Ratio= Total assets/ Total current
liabilities.

Current liability Ratio…..Current liability Ratio = Current

liabilities/Owner’s equity

Debt-equity Ratio (Leverage Ratio) … Debt-equity Ratio = Total

debts/Owner’s equity

Equity-value Ratio ….Equity-value Ratio = Owner’s equity/Value of

assets. ….Highlights the productivity gained by the farmer in relation to
the assets

Acid test ratio or Quick ratio= Cash receipts+Accounts

receivable+marketable securities available in more than one year/ Total
current liabilities.Indicates adequacy of cash and income surpluses to
cover all current liabilities during the period of one to two years

PROFIT AND LOSS STATEMENT (INCOME STATEMENT)

basically three important items, namely., Receipts, Expenses and Net
income.

Reciepts include returns from enterprises of farm.. returns from the sale
of capital assets such as land, buildings, machinery, etc. are not counted
as receipts.Similarly The amount spent on the purchase of any capital
asset does not come under expenses.

Net income is calculated in three different ways.

o Net Cash Income..This is worked out by reducing total cash expenses

from the total cash receipts.

o Net Operating Income…It is calculated by reducing the total

operational expenses from the gross income.

o Net Farm Income….It is worked out by deducting total fixed expenses

from the net operating income…net farm income is the best measure and
is most frequently used for assessing the performance of farm business.
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CASH FLOW STATEMENT .or cash flow summary or cash flow

budget or flow of funds statement. Cash flow statement is a summary of
cash inflows and cash outflows of a business organization in a particular
period, Cash Balance is the difference between Cash Receipts and Cash
Expenses

The point in which business is making no profit or loss is called break

even point… total costs become equal to total revenues… the
corresponding output is known as Break Even Output (BEO). Break even
point is the minimum point of average total cost.
Margin of safety… difference between its normal capacity and break even
output.It indicates the shock absorbing capacity of the farmer in times of
risk and uncertainty. it reflects the financial strength of the enterprise.

Shut down point is the minimum point of average variable cost. If the
total revenue curve goes below this point, it is better to close the business
instead of incurring losses. So this point is called as Shut down point…
There are two approaches of finding break even point……linear and
curvilinear,….in linear approach the output cost is kept constant….
For loan approval The bank examine the scheme for its technical
feasibility and economic viability….

The present rate of insurance premium for scheme and non scheme
animals are 2.25% and 4.0% respectively. The basic premium rate per
annum is 4% of the sum insured.. The indemnity is limited to 75% of
sum insured in case of a PTD claim.

Poultry insured value… broilers it is Rs 45 and for layers Rs 75… if there

is delay for more than three days the claim would be treated as non-
standard.
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Procurement covers the act of buying goods and services whereas

acquisition is a much wider concept than procurement

The International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) created the

Quality Management System ( QMS ) standards in 1987. In 2005 the
International Organization for Standardization released a standard, ISO
22000, meant for the food industry..
A Standard specifies what basic quality a product must have to be
consistent with the established characteristics. Regional standard:
Example- CEN standards.

Stardadisation of agricultural prodects in india is through agmark

laboratories… Central Agmark Laboratory, Nagpur as the apex
laboratory… under APGM Act 1937….( Agricultural Produce (Grading
and Marking ) Act, 1937 as amended in 1986)
Primary packaging is the material that first envelops the product and
holds it. Secondary packaging is outside the primary packaging Tertiary
packaging is used for bulk handling , warehouse storage and transport
shipping.

Retailers are at the end of the supply chain.Service provider is also a

retailer…

A service is the action of doing some activity for someone or some

organisation. It is largely intangible…. Inseparable…. Perishable…
Variability…. Right of ownership
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………….
SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

A Eco/green job, also called a green-collar job,,,,Green job initiative

launched in 2007… The two major green house gases produced by
animal husbandry are methane and nitrous oxide N2O
Financial capital or economic capital refers to the funds provided by
lenders (and investors) to businesses to purchase real capital equipment
for producing goods/services.
Real capital comprises physical goods that assist in the production of
other goods and services such as milking machine, chaff cutter etc.,
Signaling capital is a sub category of financial capital which signals a
company's financial strength to shareholders,

…………………………………………………..
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Covert advertising is when a product or brand is embedded in sports,

entertainment and media.

The TV commercial is generally considered the most effective mass-

market advertising format….Residual advertising is worst type of
advertising as last priority is given to advertising,,,,

……………………………………………………………

Father of entrepreneurship….fran jabara

Idea of innovation…..Joseph Schumpeter….

Creativity is subjective and discovery is objective…..

Cultural theory of entrepreneurship…Hose latz

Papneck and Harris theory…..desire of person plays a role in

creation…….

Lei benstein…..gap filling theory or x efficiency theory…there is some gap

between input and output…..

Theory of adjustment ….Kirzner

Theory of profit…HF knight

Theory of market equilibrium …hayek

Medium of entrepreneur…market

Entreprenuer supply theory…john j kunkel

Theory of religious beliefs….Maxx webber

Theory of social change,,,,ee hecken

Theory of group level patteren , theory of change….young

Term entrepreneur…Richard cantillon…..

Micro small and medium enterprise act…2006

The entrepreneur book by mark Larson..

Façade is also known as false front….

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Micro view school of thought……inside looking out…

The term sociology was coined by Auguste Comte ….. father of

Sociology… Sociology studies man in his group relations. … Science of
Society….. In Latin, Socius means companion and In Greek, logos means
scientific study.

Society is a group of people who have lived together, sharing common

values and general interests, long enough to be considered by others and
by themselves as a unit. Society has both structural and functional
elements..Structural elements include intragroup and intergroup
relation, identity and composition where as functional elements enclude
objectives or ends ( function of people in group) ,norms, leadership,
resources…

Change means some aspect of function or structure which differs at later

times from what it was at earlier times. It involves the process of
disorganization, organization or reorganization.

Groups are defined as two or more people in reciprocal interaction with

one another. Institutions are ‘crystallized mechanisms’

Social control is the pattern of influence the society exerts on individuals

and groups to maintain order and establish rules in the society.

Social Norms: Norms are established behaviour patterns for the

members of a social system.

Folkways: Socially acceptable ways of behaviour, eg,,,manners… the

customary norms of society that do not imply moral sanction…It is
everyday norm…

Mores: Socially acceptable ways of behaviour, the customary norms of

society, which involve moral standards. Violation may involve severe
social action. e.g. Inter caste marriage. Generally the term ‘mores’ is used
for positive action-things that ought to be done. “taboo” is used for the
negative action, things that one ought not to do.

Laws: Formalized norms with legal and / or political enforcement such

as acts, statutes etc.
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Social role is the expected behaviour of one member of society in relation

to others… Social stratification is the division of society into a series of
levels indicating positions of individuals and groups in the value system
existing in that society. Position in the stratification level denotes ‘Status’
of the group or individual.

Social processes are the interactions of groups and individuals with one
another. The four basic forms of social processes are …Competition ,
Conflict , Co-operation ., Accommodation…

Association: Associations are functional groups that are brought into

existence for various but well defined purpose by collective action and
functioning.

Leadership: Leading is the process of influencing people so that they will

strive willingly and enthusiastically towards the achievement of group
goals.

culture includes everything that man learns or acquires as a member of

particular society.,,, Culture is the continually changing patterns of
learned behaviour and the products of learned behavior which are
shared by and transmitted among the members of society…

Simplest functional unit of culture is called cultural triat…two types of

cultural triats…eg bowing is a non material cultural triat whereas sari is a
materialistic…

Culture complex is Organization of culture traits around one dominant

trait. It is a group or cluster of related traits…culture pattern is group of
culture complexes…

Time difference between some technological change and the resulting

change in culture is called culture lag….

The term ‘ethos’ is used to signify those traits that are characteristic of,
or peculiar to a particular culture, which may be used to differentiate one
culture from another….Eg indian handicrafts…

Ethnocentrism is the preferential feeling we have for the way we do

things in our culture…we feel our culture is superior to others…
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constoms are socially prescribed forms of behaviour transmitted by

tradition and enforced by social disapproval if violated… Conventions are
customs regulating more significant social behaviour. e.g. Being polite to
others…. Conventions are violated less often than folkways

An institution is an organized system of social relationships which

embodies certain common values and procedures and meets certain
basic needs of society

The recognised five basic institutions in both rural and urban

societies are o Family o Religion o Economic o Government o
Education

The family is the most multifunctional of all institutions in the

society…secondary institution in family involves marriage, courtship ,
engagement……

Secondary institutions of religion - forms of worship and organised

groups for propagating religion…

Government institution is also called political institution….. Secondary

institutions - Defense, legal, military, home affairs etc.,

These institutions provide basic physical subsistence for society and

meet basic needs for food, shelter and clothing and other necessities.
….The economic institutions of production are Agriculture, Industry…
Secondary institutions - Credit and banking systems, advertising,

………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Social stratification is homogenous in rural and tribal population…

Different factors bring about social change….. Culture is the main cause
of social change

A group should consist of at least two persons.

A Crowd is a temporary collection of people reacting to stimuli,,,

A category is a number of persons who can be thought of as a unit,

whether or not they are communicating or interacting with one another.
All groups are categories but not all categories are groups.
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Primary groups are characterized by intimate 'face to face' interaction,

informal personal relationships and a definite “we feeling” on the part of
the members. Primary groups have a sort of permanency, are small in
size and have the responsibility to socialize the individuals. Ex.
Family…….less than 30

Secondary groups are characterized by formal, contractual, utilitarian

and goal oriented relationships. Secondary groups are large in size, have
little face to face communication and maintain a more or less
anonymous relationship. Ex. Political party, cooperative society, club etc.

Out group is one with which other individuals can not identify
themselves. The individuals feel themselves as outsiders to the group
and the group also has a similar reciprocal feeling towards the
individuals. Matters of vital interest are not shared with the out group
members.

Involuntary group is one, for the membership of which, an individual

does not have any choice or is not required to put any effort. Ex.
Membership by birth or residence such as family, caste, etc.

Voluntary group is one for the membership of which one has to have
some deliberate choice or put in some conscious effort. Ex. Cooperative
society, youth clubs etc.

Delegate groups: Members representative of and chosen by groups. Ex.

United Nations, federations…..

A reference group is a group to which an individual or another group is

compared…

Social status is social standing or position of an individual or group in

relation to others as ranked by society

The Famine Commission 1880, 1898 and 1901

The Government of India Act 1919…………. The Irrigation committee

1903

The Royal commission 1928

Shanthinikethan or rural reconstruction institute by Rabindranath

tagore in the year 1921
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Bhoodan Movement…acharya vinod bhave

All India Village Industries Organization, and the Harijan Sewak

Sangh….Gandhi

Gurgoan movement by fL brayne,,,,,,,,village guides were created…..later

this movement was called as “better living societies”

Co operatives , rural reconstruction institutes……By Danial Hamilton

Marthandam project…Spencer hatch…

Sarvodaya Scheme in Bombay, and the Firka Development Scheme in

Madras….V T krishnamachari

ETAWAH project… Lt. Col. Albert Mayer

Indian Village Service (I.V.S.)…. A.T. Mosher of New York, and Shri B.N.
Gupta

Nilokheri Experiment…S K DEY….Mazdoor manzil scheme

The fundamental or basic objective of community development in India

is the “development of people” or “destination man”.

Extension education mainly focuses on Individuals…

Community development program started in october 1952…55

projects…3 years for 1 project…5 stages og work…conception stage 3
m….initiation stage 6m….operation stage 18 m……consolidation stage
6m…finalization stage 3m…

One year after Community development program ,national extension

services NES , was started….Here blocks were developed for intensive
care…

Both have operation units called a development blocks…but NES blocks

focused in intensive development…

Community development blocks after completing scheduled period of

operation are called Post-intensive blocks…Intensive phase is called real
peoples programme.

Economic development…. production for direct consumption and have a

surplus to sell for cash…
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Human development is the base of development…..Political and

economic forming the structure and social development the roof…social
development are those investments and services carried out or provided
by a community for the mutual benefit of the people of that community…

Sustainable development is based on the concept of needs and idea of

limitation….

The word extension is derived from the Latin roots ‘ex’ meaning ‘out’ and
‘tensio’ meaning ‘stretching’…

Father of extension Paul Leagans….

Education is a process of bringing desirable changes into the behaviour

of human beings..the education is effective when it results change in
Knowledge , Attitudes , Skill, Action

Informal education The day to day process of learning, whereby

knowledge is transferred in the context of the family, the neighborhood,
the daily working relationships between the people and through the
media.

Formal education… The education which takes place in the schools and
colleges….vertical transmission,,.

Non formal….horizontal transmission…eg extension

education…hetorogenous group present…This education takes place
outside education system…

The individual is supreme in democracy, … The home is the fundamental

unit of civilization, ,,…….. The family is the first training group of the
human race, .

Principles of extension….

Grassroot principle….extension should begin from local level…

Family is the primary unit of society.

Wilson and gallop…steps in

teaching…AIDCAS…Attention…interest…desire….conviction…action…sat
isfaction….. Attention is the starting point to the arousing of interest…
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people learn 1 % through taste, 1.5 % through touch, 3.5

%through smell,

Edgar Dales’ Cone of experience as modified by Sheal………..

people tend to remember 10 % of what they read, 20 % of what
they hear and through 30 percent what they see, 50 percent of
what they hear and see, 70 percent of what they say and 90
percent of what they say and do.

………………………………………………………………………………………

communication originated from the Latin word“Communis” which

means common….

Written form…leaflet,newsletter,folder,palphlet,bulletins

Visual…OHP,result demonstration….. Direct projection:Slide projector,

Filmstrip projector…….. Indirect projection:Overhead projector
(OHP),,,,,,,, Reflected projection: Opaque projector (Epidiascope)

ABC of Poster: Attractive, brief & clear

The exhibits are 3-dimensional, while displays are 2-dimensional..

Book ,,,more than 50 page..

Leaflet is also called flyer

Audio visual …..method demo, result demo.,puppet show

Lecture one way communication…..symposium similar to lecture but

more than two experts present different phrases of the topic…. Forum
consists of question period in which the members of the audience may
ask questions or make brief statement.

“Buzz session” or “Buddle system or Philips 66”,,

Brain storming It is a type of small group of interaction designed to

encourage the free introduction of idea on an unrestricted basis and
without any limitations or feasibility.
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Workshop is essentially a long meeting from one day to several weeks.

Leaflet: A leaflet is a single sheet of printed matter. It is made to give an

accurate or specific information on a specific topic…

Folder: A single sheet of printed information in a folded form…meant for

dealing specific topic…

Pamphlet: A pamphlet consists of3 to 12 pages and deals with a specific

topic in a detailed manner.

Bulletin: The number of pages fora bulletin ranges from 12 to 20. A

bulletin is a written piece of information about a number of related
topics presented in a detailed manner.

Booklet: When the number of pages exceeds 20 then it is called as a

booklet. Usually a booklet deals with number of topics

Campaign It is an intense teaching activity undertaken at an opportune

moment for a brief period;

Media forums ::: Are small organized groups of individuals who meet
regularly to receive a mass media programme and discus its contents…..
It is a combination of mass media inter-personal channels

Kisan Call Centre toll-free number: 1800-180-1551

Method demonstration take less time and money compared to result

demonstration…

group discussion cannot be used effectively when the number of

participants exceeds 30, method demonstration can be used for a
relatively small audience

Model: is essentially an imitation or replica of original, whether

Cattle shed

Mock-up: differs from the model in that it is a functional device, which

alters the essential elements -up of feed mixing
plant.
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Specimens of intestinal worms/insects

Exhibits : A planned display of models, specimens, charts, posters etc

presented to the public.

Illustrations are non-photographic reconstructions of reality.

Chalk board: It is most universally used of all the teaching aid

Flash cards: Are series of illustrated cards which when flashed or

presented in proper sequence tells a complete story

Epidiascope is replaced by projectors….

Bufallo horse power is .5

……………………………………………………………………………………

Diffusion of Innovations is defined as "the process by which an

innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among
the members of a social system"…innovation is an idea, practice, or
object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of
adoption….elements of diffusions of innovations are…………..time,
innovation, communication channels and social system….there are three
type of innovation decisions,,,,,,optional…decision made by
individual………………..collective innovation decision,,,,collectively by all
individuals of social system…….Authority innovation decision….. This
decision is made for the entire social system by few individuals
inpositions of influence or power,,,,

The five stages in the adoption process are: o Knowledge, o Persuasion, o

Decision, o Implementation and o Confirmation…………

Confirmation,,, Although the name of this stage may be misleading, in

this stage the individual finalizes his decision to continue using the
innovation and may use the innovation to its fullest potential.

Characters of innovation includes…relative

advantage,,,compatibility,,,complexity,trailability and observability…
153 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

trialability, determines how easily an innovation may be experimented

with as it is being adopted….. observability, is the extent that the results
of an innovation are visible.

Innovation defined by rogers,,,

Innovativeness is the degree to which an individual is relatively earlier in

adopting new ideas rather than other members of his social system

Innovators… youngest in age, have the highest social class…have contact

with scientists…

Early adopters…………..These individuals have the highest degree of

opinion leadership

Late majority…. These individuals approach an innovation with a high

degree of skepticism and after the majority of society has adopted the
innovation.

Laggards… little to no opinion leadership.

Leaders…. Credibility: The degree to which a leader isbelievable.

Credibility: The degree to which a leader isbelievable………….other
factors Dependability, drive,competence…

Laissez faire leader is a leader who trust his workers..this allows

followers to set rules…

‘’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’
154 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

Farming…

A specialized farm is one in which 50 per cent or more receipts / income

are derived from one source

When farming is organized to produce one main product but also has
several other enterprises each of which itself is the direct source of
income, it is called diversified farming

a farm where at least 10 per cent of its income is contributed by livestock

is called a mixed farm….maximum 49…

Co-operative farming is one in which agricultural / livestock producers

co-operate with one another…three types …co operative tenant farming
society, co operative joint farming socirty….co operative better farming
society..

In collective farming societies, members do not have an individual land

ownership right in the society’s land…. Type I Collective farming
societies: It is marked by transfer of land ownership rights by members
in return for shares of equivalent value…. Type II Collective farming
societies: It is marked by transfer of land ownership rights by members

marked by absence of the transfer of any prior land ownership rights by

members, because members did not possess any ownership rights in
society’s land.

The advantages of large-scale production over small-scale production are

called the economies of scale//..it is classified into internal and external
economies….. Internal economies are those advantages of production,
which occur as a result of decrease in cost of production as the result of
expansion of output… Internal economies are caused by two factors viz.,
o Indivisibilities and o Specialization.

Risk is more in large scale prdn…

CONTRACT OR INTEGRATED FARMING …………….

Mainly in poultry… the poultry farmers agree to provide eggs or chicken
of certain quality and adhere to the management practices indicated by
an agency in return for an assured market.. poultry production is highly
commercialized and the role of public extension has become limited in
this setup
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Rochdale Principles and was accepted worldwide as the cooperative

principles…in 1844 in England..
Essential principles ….Open membership… Democratic management
….Limited interest on capital…. Payment of dividend in proportion to
transaction
Non Essential principles… Political and religious neutrality…. Cash
trading… Education to members………………this was introduced by
International Cooperative Alliance (ICA)
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
/////
India's first Five-Year Plan in 1951
Kaira District Cooperative Milk Producers' Union, now popularly known
as AMUL, in 1946. procurement and services by the cooperative;
processing by the union; marketing by the state federation; There is also
a fourth tier, the National Cooperative Dairy Federation of India
(NCDFI), which is a national-level body that formulates policies and
programmes designed to safeguard the interests of all milk producers.
………………
Amul model …3 tier system
Primary Milk Producers co-operative Society at village level o District
Co-operative Milk Producers Union o State Milk Producers Co-operative
Federation
The payment is done on the basis of two axis pricing policy (Fat and SNF
%).

The dairy cooperative union is controlled by a board of directors of 17

members of which 12 are elected representatives of the village societies.
…//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
……………

Survey, in simple terms means to “look over” or “to see over”

General survey – is conducted for collecting general information about
any population or institution eg census..

Specific survey – is conducted to study specific problems or some

particular aspect of the community. Eg… Unemployment

In case of direct surveys quantification is possible whereas in indirect

surveys quantitative description is not possible.
In the census all units are covered separately and studied. Whereas, in
sample survey, only some representative unit is studied.
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In the primary survey, the task of survey is taken up afresh and the
surveyor himself sets the goals and collects relevant facts… if some facts
are already available and there is no need to examine them afresh by a
new survey then, the survey is called secondary survey.

If the survey is being made for the first time it is called initial survey and
if it is being made second or third time it is called repetitive survey.

A preliminary survey is called as ‘pilot study’… The purpose of this

survey is to get the first hand knowledge of the universe to be surveyed.
Final survey is conducted after the completion of pilot survey.

The surveys conducted by Quasi-government institutions like University,

Corporations, Boards etc. are Semi-official surveys.

Regular surveys are repeated after regular intervals without fail. The Ad-
hoc surveys are conducted for specific purpose once for all. It is mostly
used for testing the hypothesis
Ideal sample…
Homogeneity
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Convenience Sampling / Accidental Sampling.. The investigator selects

certain units from the population as per his convenience.

Deliberate / Purposive / Judgement Sampling This method means

deliberate selection of sample units that conform of some pre-
determined criteria.
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Quota sampling… When the population is known to consist of

various categories by sex, age, religion etc. each investigator
may be given assignment of quota, groups specified by the
predetermined traits in specific proportions.

Snowball sampling…. technique of building up a list of sample

population. In this method sample units are selected by using an initial
set ot its members as informants

Extensive Sampling…This method is virtually same as census except that

the irrelevant items are left out and every other item is examined.

Random sampling…

Simple random sampling… This sampling technique gives each element

(unit) an equal and independent chance of being included in the sample

Stratified random sampling o It is used when the researcher wants to

ensure that there should be representation of certain characteristics in
the sample. Drawing a sample from each stratum in proportion to the
stratum’s share in the total population, is known as Proportionate
Stratified sampling. Contrary to this, if a sample gives over or under
representation of some strata, it is known as Disproportionate Stratified
sampling.

Systematic Random Sampling o It is similar to random sampling. A

random starting point is selected and every Kth unit (for example every
10th unit) is chosen from systematically arranged observations.

Cluster sampling o It is a type of random sampling in which the samples

are selected in the same way as it is done in simple random sampling
technique. But in this case, sampling units are not individual elements of
the population, but group of elements (i.e, each unit is a cluster of
population elements).

Multistage sampling o In this method, items are selected in different

stages at random. After the population is initially sampled the resulting
sub population is again sampled. This procedure can be repeated as
many times as desired to get required characteristics.
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Key communicators or opinion leaders are persons in any social system

who are sought out for information and advice on general or specific
topics.by Katz & Lazarfield

FINDING LEADER…..sociometric method (based on with whon you

have to work with)……..Election…Discussion…etc…. Self-designating

questions designed to determine the degree to which he perceives

himself to be a key-communicator…………… When the norms of a system
are more modern,key-communicators are more monographic.
Monography is the tendency of akey-communicator to act as such for
only one topic

Extension programme is a statement of situations, objectives, problems

and solutions

Project is a specification of work to be done or procedure to be followed

in order to accomplish a particular objective.

Plan of work is an outline of activities so arranged as to enable efficient

execution of the programme

Calendar of work is a plan of activities to be undertaken in a particular

time sequence.

COLLECTION OF FACTS …. It is the starting point of programme

planning process.
Simple problems with high rate of success may be taken up first to gain
confidence of the livstock farmers

PANCHAYAT Raj…. It means a system of government

Democratic decentralisation…. cracy meaning 'rule of' and demo

meaning 'the people'.
Decentralization means devolution of central authority among local units
close to the area served…Started experimentally in 1957 in madras and
later in andhra
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the election of President of Village Panchayat has to be decided by direct

election.Members by indirect election… One third of the total number of
seats has been reserved for women
The Panchayati Raj functions in each state under three tier system with
the o Village Panchayat at the grass root level, o Panchayat Union at
intermediate level and o District Panchayat at district level.

VILLAGE PANCHAYAT (GRAM SABHA)…they meet thrice a

year..president must preside , in absence vice president must do the
job……

Panchayat union or panchayat samithi/….

DISTRICT PANCHAYAT (ZILLA PARISHAD)

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Krishi vigyan Kendra……………………by ICAR

Icar deemed institutes…4

Indian Agricultural Research Institute, (IARI) New Delhi

Central Institute on Fisheries Education, ( CIFE), Mumbai

National Academy of Agricultural Research & Management, Hyderabad

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Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute, Avikanagar, Rajasthan

Central Institute for Research on Goats, Makhdoom

Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes, Hissar

National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Bangalore

Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar

National Institute of Animal Genetics, Karnal

Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi

National Research Centre on Camel, Bikaner

National Research Centre on Equines, Hisar

National Research Centre on Meat, Hyderabad

Hyderabad

Project Directorate on Animal Disease Monitoring and Surveillance,

Hebbal, Bangalore

Self learning is active learning….

Learner-led e-learning also called stand-alone or self-directed e-learning

consist of the delivery of learning experiences to independent learners..
Facilitated e-learning makes use of the capabilities of Learner-led e-
learning and add the benefit of having an instructor guiding the learner.

An Information kiosk is a computer terminal featuring specialized

hardware and software designed within a public exhibit that provides
access to information and applications for communication, commerce,
entertainment, and education. up-time is the time between failures or
crashes..

A web directory is not a search engine and does not display lists of web
pages based on keywords; instead, it lists web sites by category and
subcategory….

[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[
[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[
163 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

ANIMAL HUSBANDARY DEVP PROGRAMS

First Five Year Plan (1950-55)…Gosadans………….. Second Five Year Plan

(1955-60)…breeding policy of sheep………….. Third Five Year Plan (1960-
65) ..ICDP… Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74)..AICRP, operation flood….
Fifth Five Year Plan (1974 – 79)……… Sixth Five Year Plan (1980 –
85)….. Seventh Five Year Plan (1986 – 90)…operation flood 2//…. Eighth
Five Year Plan (1992 – 97)…. The Sanitary and phyto-sanitary (SPS)
measures have been introduced…… Ninth Five Year Plan (1999 –
2001)………….. Tenth Five Year Plan (2002 – 2007)………………..last five
year plan is 12th… ie 2012 to 2017….

6th and 7 th plans….decades of poultry…

Gaushalas… engaged in rehabilitation of disowned cattle… To preserve

the Indian cows and progeny and to breed and upgrade them for
supplying plenty of unadulterated milk and milk products to the people
and distribute the best female calves to the villagers

‘Gosadans’ where ‘uneconomic’ cattle could be housed cheaply and

allowed to die naturally…Didn’t succeed….

Key village Scheme or KVS… The basic aim was to bring about rapid
improvement in the production potentiality of milch animals through
improved breeding ( multiplication of superior germ plasm), effective
healthcare, and scientific management and organized marketing
facilities….1952…failed,,,,one block had 4 semen banks to cover 10k
population

Intensive Cattle Development Project (ICDP),,,,1965…increasing milk

production….less success….1 central semen bank in district supplies 4
regional semen banks which in turn supplies 100 stockman centres
which covers one lakh cattle population…similar to kvs but had
benchmark survey and extension activities other than kvs…

OPERATION FLOOD I (1970-81)

WFP donated 1, 26,000 MT of Skim Milk Powder and 42,000 MT of
Butter oil. Through sale of these commodities, funds to the tune of
Rs.1164 millions were generated and were utilized for creating
164 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

infrastructure facilities necessary for dairy development.started Institute

of Rural Management at Anand (IRMA).

OPERATION FLOOD II (1981-85)

Rs. 2323 millions through sale of gift commodities… established a
National Milk Grid which will link the rural milk sheds to the major
demand centres with urban population

OPERATION FLOOD III (1985-96)

Reached 193 grams per day of per capita availability of milk….from 107
grams…

Integrated Rural Development Programmes (IRDP) 1976…launched in

three phases…spred all over india in 1980….there are many programs
included in irdp..

SWARNAJAYANTHI GRAM SWAROZGAR YOJANA

…1999…50 % women and 50% sc st…. Credit: 75:25 ( Centre :
State ) Person assisted under this programme will be known as
Swarozgaris, and group is Selg Help groups’

TRYSEM: Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment….1979

AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT AGENCY
….ATMA procedures concerning district-wise research
extension activities are determined by ATMA

Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme, RLEGP and National Rural

Employment Programme, NREP were merged into a single rural employment
programme Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana (JGSY).
Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS)…credit by central : state is 75 : 25…assured
employement for 100 days…1993
Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP)
Council for Advancement of People’s Action and Rural Technology (CAPART) was
formed by merging two autonomous bodies Peoples’ Action for Development India
(PADI) and Council for Advancement of Rural Technology (CART)

National Agriculture Development Programme (NADP) or Rashtriya

Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY)…2007….during 11 th plan

Extension institutes,,, MANAGE (National Institute for Agricultural

Extension Management) at the national level. SAMETI (State
Agricultural Management Extension and Training Institute) at the state
level… EEI (Extension Education Institute) at the regional level
165 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

NATP was the world's biggest World Bank assisted agriculture project
worth Rs. 992 crores…National agriculture technology project…

Principle of method demonstration: Learning by doing

Principle of result demonstration: Seeing is believing

Needs is the difference between "What is & what ought to be".

Intelligence quotient (IQ) = Mental age/Chronological age × 100

Learner occupies central position in learning situation.

Trilogy of mind/3-aspect of psychology:-(1) Cognition - acquiring

knowledge (2) Affection-Feelings and emotions evoked by the person (3)
Conation - Desire to perform an action

Panchayati raj proposed by Balwantrai Mehta committee was

inaugurated by Jawahar Lal Nehru on 2nd october 1959 at Nagaur
(Rajasthan)

(1) Innovators: They are venturesome. They are first to adopt a new idea.
(2) Early adopters: They are respectable (Community adoption leaders)

(3) Early majority: They are deliberate (Local adoption leaders)

(4) Late majority: They are skeptical

(5) Laggards: They are traditional. They are last to adopt a new idea.

Adoption Process: by E.M.Rogers

Sheep unit:- 30 Ewe + 1 Ram

- 10 Goat + 1 Buck

- 100 Hens

- 250 Chicks

- 10 Sow + 1 Boar

- 1 Buffalo in milk

- 1 or 2 Cows in milk
166 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

l unit:- 1 Camel + 1 cart

- 1 Bullock + 1 cart

National Dairy Development Board, Anand (Gujarat):- Founded by: Dr.

Verghese Kurien (Milkman of India)… Established in: 1965

Operation flood owes its origin to Mr. Lal Bahadur Shastri

Blue revolution: - Fish Production,,, Prof.Hiralal Chaudhuri

- Food grains(wheat, Rice)… Norman Ernest

Borlaug… M.S. Swaminathan in india

- Meat/Tomato production

- Egg/Poultry Production

Community Development Programme (CDP) October 2,1952

National Extension Services (NES) October 2,1953

Community Development Block (CDB) 1954

Vividh Bharati radio channel was launched on October 2, 1957

Key village scheme(KVS) 1952

Intensive Agriculture District Programme(IADP) 1960

Intensive Agriculture Area Programme(IAAP) 1964

High Yield Variety Programme(HYVP) 1966

Krishi Darshan 1967

Drought Prone Area Programme(DPAP) 1973-74

Krishi Vigyan Kendra(KVK) 1974 Training and Visit System (T&V

System) 1974

Integrated Rural Development Programme(IRDP) 1978

Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment (TRYSEM) 15 August 1979

National Rural Employment Program (NREP) 1980

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Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) 1982

Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) 15 August

1983

Mid-day meal scheme 15 August 1995

Prasar Bharti: An autonomous broadcasting corporation of India

launched on 23 November 1997

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act – 2005

2006

Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana(RKVY) August 2007

Rashtriya Gokul Mission , Mann ki baat 2014

DD kisan 2015

Servants of India society……….Gopala Krishna gokale

Scheme of rural reconstruction By Sir Daniel Hamilton concept

Rural Reconstruction institute……Tagore

Sarvodaya programme by acharya vinobha bhave

Land and labour are primary factors whereas capital and entrepreneur
are secondary factors of production. Labour is active factor and land is
passive…

Monopoly: -market with single producer/seller

- market with single buyer

- market with two sellers

-market with two buyers

-market with more than two sellers

-market with more than two buyers

Brokers & commission agents are known as agent middlemen

Wholesalers & retailers agents are known as merchant middlemen

168 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

Specialised farming is riskiest darming system…Most common is mixed

farming

Diversified farming- A numbers of enterprises in a farm & no single

enterprise will provide ≥ 50% of the gross income.

Ex: Crop + Dairy + Poultry + Orchard

Dry farming- adopted in the areas which receive less than 50 cm of

annual rainfall..eg silviculture

Irrigated/Garden land farming/Wetland farming ex.- Sericulture

Extensive farming: area under operation is more to increase output.

Ex: Deep litter system of poultry farming

Intensive farming: When more capital is use in a small area.

Ex: Multi-tier cage system of poultry farming

Collective farming/ Kolkhozes- Both ownership & operatorship are

under society..The individual has no voice in this system

KVS is also known as “mother of all schemes”… the first step initiated for
systemic cattle improvement in the country…mass castration practiced

Cows, calves, and bulls are kept in gaushalas while other animals are
kept in pinjrapoles…pinjarapole animals are non productive/…

Acculturation: contact between cultures when people of different

cultures come in contact..

Government: most important influencing factor in the process of social

change
169 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

Fidelity: Faithful performance of all the elements of the communication

process.

Berlo‟s model or "SMCR" model: Source- Message- Channel- Receiver..

Aristotle‟s model: Speaker – Speech – Audience

Shannon & Weaver model: (Source-transmitter-channel-receiver-

destination)

Sarvodaya program 1952

Gurgao 1920

Marthandam experiment…1921

If villagers perish …india perish…………mahatma Gandhi

If people participate actively 90 % is held in mind….

Margin of safety :;;; actual sales – break even point

Caste is a dominant social institution permeating social and economic

relations…

Akashavani…1957

Skill india,,,,,2015

Disha …2017

Ayushman bharat scheme , samagra shiksha scheme//….2018

Firkha devpt scheme…..t prakasam,,,1946

Panchayat raj absent in Mizoram, Meghalaya, nagaland

Gemeinschaft and geselschaft…….f tonnies

Multi purpose village worker…….etawah pilot project…1948

Rural reconstruction institute…..daniel Hamilton

The best method of selection of leader is sociometry

Paul leagans…..communication---message----channel—treatment---
audience ---- response
170 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

Social movement is movement of group and individuals in vertical

direction

Mid day meal…12g prot and 300 calorie ….

Indian village service…..pohri village

YMCA……Spencer hatch

The structure of CD blocks were taken from etawah project

Gandhi started sevagram in wardha

Father of demonstration extension…seaman knap

GIS….geographic information system….planning need based extension

program

Diary or poultry venture capital fund…..in 2004

Conception of self largely depends the way others act towards him…

Military diary farm…alllahabad….1889

Census first…..1919

AMUL 1946

ONBS….,NMG…1970

SLBP….1976

National egg coordination committee,,,,NECC….1982

Livestock insurance scheme 2005

Intensive diary development Program…2006…intensive pounltry devp

prog

GOBAR …2018

Kisan credit card…1998

Famine commission by british in 1866

Srinikethan project…tagore,,,rural reconstruction institute..rural devpt

scheme
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Make in india …2014..swatch bharat

Rural rconstruction scheme…Hamilton

LPM
Newly registered breeds…

Cattle…..purnea in bihar,,,,,

Buffalo….gojri from Punjab..

Sheep kajali from Punjab…

Pig…purnea in bihar….

Donkey …katchi ftom Gujarat…

Duck …maithili from bihar…..

Chicken line PD2 vanaraja,,,,,from hyderabad

Total indigenous breeds 212….Cattle…53…buffalo…20…sheep,,,.44

goat….37 ….horses…7..chicken 19…..pig 13…..camel….9…..donkey
3…….dog 3……duck 2…..geese 1……yak 1………

New cattle breed and

places…………….podathurpu..telengana….dagri…Gujarat…thutho…naagal
and,,,,,shwetha kapila…goa…..

Pig ….MALI…thripura….
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Total livestock population…..536 million …4.6 percent increase from last

year…

Total poultry 851 M….increase of 16.8 percent

Total bovine……303…..cattle….193…. .8percent increase

Total buffalo….109… 1 percent increae

Total pig…9 M

Total sheep….74…

Goat 148M

Cattle occupies 36%...buffallo…20%

India is 1st in total livestock…..milk production…..bufallo pop….carabeef

production…..total bovine population…..goat milk production…

2nd in cattle population….bristle production….goat popu…aquaculture

nation…goat meat

3rd in egg production, sheep popu

5th in poultry and meat production, pig population

6th in poultry meat

ICMR meat recommendation…..11 kg per year…currently 6.45….8.5 MT

total….6 percent growth

ICMR milk recommendation….280 g per day…..currently 406 g per

day..198 MT total production…..6.5 percent growth

Egg recommendation 182 per year…current 86 per year….8.5 % growth

Highest livestock pop, indigenous cow pop….horse, buffalo, milk

production, meat….UP…poultry, crossbred cow popu….TN……Cattle
…WB….

Goat, goat milk,wool production, camel, donkey…rajasthan……………..pig

…assam………………sheep ..telengana…

Yak….jammu……mithun….arunachal….
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Highest per capita availability of milk…Punjab…1181g…

Highest egg production , per capita availability……andra….372 egg….

Cattle 1st brazil…

Sheep goat pig, poultry,duck ,egg,pork…china turkey , horse …usa

There are 28 apeda registered abattoirs in india,.

BUFFALO,,,chromosome..river buff…50…swamp…48

Nili-Ravi: White markings on forehead, face, muzzle, legs and tail

(Panchkalyani)panchbhadra; Wall Eyes…min fat percentage in buffalo..

Surti: Sickle shaped horn with hook at tip, two white chevrons below
neck….Gujarat

Mehsana: (Murrah × Surti)…Gujarat..longest lact period…Only buffalo

with

black switch of tail;

Murrah… Highest milk producing breed of buffalo.delhi buffalo…jet

black..

Bhadawari: Copper Colored, Highest Fat Percentage (10-14%)…UP…

Jaffarabadi: Heaviest Breed,,,,Gujarat

Nagpuri: Long flat horns (sword shaped) carried backwards near to

shoulder. Naval flap is short or almost absent…maharashtra

Toda: Crescent shaped horn….TN…most violent breed

Luit (Swamp): Light white stockings up to the knee are present in both
fore and hind legs.

Bubalus carabanesis…swamp buffalo….

Two breeds of swamp buffalo in India: Manipuri and

Assamese…Manipuri is true swamp buffalo…

Cattle…
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Lactation period 305 days (10 months)…Dry period 60 days (2

months)…service after 90 days post parturition

Act of mating…serving…castrated male…bullock or steer…

Manger lenghth…60 cm

Floor space in m2…covered / open….cows,

bullock…3.5/7…..buffalo…4/8…young calf…1/2 …bulls 12/24…pregnant
cow…10 /20

Metre square to square feet…devide with 10

Desirable slope of floor in animal house should have a gradient of 1:40 or

(1 inch per 10 feet length) Ratio of open area: covered area in case of
loose housing system is 2:1
Calving box , bull shed, isolation shed…150 sq feet

Dual Purpose Breeds

Hariana ……… Ongole (A.P.) … Kankrej (Gujarat … Deoni (Hyderabad) ……
Rathi/Rath(Rajasthan)…… Nimari (M.P.)
Draught purpose breeds
Hallikar (Karnataka) …… Amritmahal (Karnataka) ….. Khillari (Maharastra) ….. Bargur
(T.N.) …. Kangyam (T.N.) ….. Ponwar (U.P.) ….. Siri (Sikkim, Darjeeling) …. Kherigargh
(U.P.) . Malvi (M.P.) … Krishna valley (Karnataka)

Sahiwal: This breed otherwise known as Lola (loose skin), Lambi Bar,
Montgomery, Multani, Teli; Best indigenous dairy breed… voluminous
Dewlap

Gir: Also known as kathiawari….Horns are peculiarly curved, giving a

‘half-moon’ appearance…. Ears are markedly long, pendulous resembling
a tiny curled leaf…. Longest lactation period among indigenous
breeds….. Best beef breed.

Tharparkar: Otherwise known as White Sindhi,Malani, Gray Sindhi and

Thari; lyre-shaped horn… broad and flat forehead. Highest disease
resistant. Colour change property

Red Sindhi: Red Karachi and Sindhi and Mahi

Nagori… Evolved from Hariana and Kankrej breeds.

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Vechur… Smallest cattle breed in the world.

Ongole: Nellore

Amrit mahal.. Best draught- purpose breed of India

Kangayam…. Tamilnadu… Pride of Tamilnadu

Badri…pahadi cow or hill cow…

Kankrej: horns are lyre-shaped; The gait of Kankrej is peculiar called as

1 ¼ paces (sawai chal) Heaviest Indian Cattle breed

Jersey: Smallest of the dairy types of cattle

Karan Fries: HF bulls and Tharparkar cows

Karan Swiss: Brown Swiss with Sahiwal

Sunandhini: Jersey and Brown Swiss (5/8) with non-descript local cattle

Taylor: Shorthorn and Jersey or Guernsey bulls with local zebu cows of
Patna

Vrindavani: 50-75 %( HF, Jersey, Brown Swiss) and 25-50% Hariana

Phule Triveni: HF × Jersey × Gir

Australian Milking Zebu: Sahiwal (1/3) and Jersey (2/3)

Jamaica Hope: Native of the West Indies with 80 % of Jersey, 5 % of

Friesian and 15 % of Sahiwal inheritance.

Holstein-Friesian (Netherland/Holland)… Highest milk producer in the

world. Lowest milk fat (3.5%).

Highest milk lactose in brown swiss…..

Jersey…highest milk fat…5.5….Longest lactation period among cattle

Taylor: first crossbred cattle developed in India

The hindquarters of the udder are slightly larger than the front ones and
contain more milk. The approximate ratio of milk is 60:40
(Hindquarter: Forequarter) for cattle.

Incomplete milking: Best method of drying off a cow

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By counting no. of horn rings (Age=N+2; where N is no. of horn

ring)…we can determine age.. in cattle, first horn ring appears at the age
of 3 years.

Dentition: - most commonly used method for age

determination

0033/4033….32

Gummer: - an animal that has lost it's all teeth

Age of the animal is determined by incisors of the lower jaw

Full mouth condition: -Age at which all permanent teeth

appear….[Sheep: 4years (b) Horse: 4.5years (c) Goat, Cattle & Buffalo: 5
years (d) Camel:7 years]

Age of castration 2.5 month… age of weaning 3 months

Burdizzo castrator: It separately crushes each spermatic cord. It is a

bloodless castration… It is the best method of castration

Early weaning is difficult in buffaloes due to high motherly instinct.

Best age of dehorning in calf: before 10th day old…chemically ,,, KOH
(caustic potash) or caustic soda… Electrical dehorner (10000F/10
seconds)

GOAT..

Adult female is called doe or nanny…group of animal is called trip or

band…young female…goatling….act of mating …serving…castrated
male…wether or wedder…house is pen..

North wetern arid and semi-arid region has largest number of

goats comprising of 43 % of total goat population.

Changhthangi , chegu…..HP

Jamunapari: Best dairy goat of South East Asia and is the tallest goat
breed of the country.prominent Roman nose (Parrot mouth appearance).
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A thick growth of hair is present on the buttock, known as

“feathers”.Most elegant and majestic…Takes more time to reach
puberty….Most beautiful Indian goat

Black Bengal: Most prolific among the Indian breeds,,,,,best chevon

breed of india…has more protein, whey , phosphorous,
calcium,magnesium in milk compared to others….

Chegu: Pashmina and Meat

Barbari …..maximum milk fat……city breed…

Osmanabadi…Maharashtra…

Saanen …switz…….Milk queen,,,longest lactation and more amount of

milk per day…

Changthangi: Pashmina (cashmere). Horns are large and twisted like a

corkscrew, turned outward, upward and inward to form a semi-circle.

Anglo-Nubian: Jersey of goat breeds,,,,roman nose…most outstanding

dual purpose goat breed

Angora: Turkey Mohair In bucks,,,…Sheep like goat

*Black Bengal has minimum in many of the phenotypic

triats….eg,,,lactation lenghth,age at first kidding etc

SHEEP… Castrated male..wedder… act of mating,,..tupping…group of

animal flock….young female…gimmer lamb….

Southern region has the largest sheep population in India (40

percent of total population) more than 50 of the sheep in this
region do not produce any wool

Apparel wool breeds…hissardale, nilgiri, kashmir merino….avivasthra

…bharat merino

Superior coarse breed….chegu, changthangi,,,gaddi, magra Marwari etc

Coriedale is a dual purpose breed…

Fine wools…merino,rambuollet ,polworth

Mutton…suffolk , dorset,southdown
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Pelt breed …karakul…best fur breed..

Chokla or shekawati…“Indian Merino”

Triple purpose sheep breed…Marwari

Nali…Canary coloration of wool (yellow wool)

Long coarse wool breeds: -Lincoln, Leicester

Lincoln England Largest&heaviest breed in the world

Southdown England Mousey grey face,

Loei is obtained from bakarwal breed,,,,,

“Kullu shawls” & blankets…from gaddi…

Nellore: tallest breed of sheep in India, resembling goats in

appearance.goat like sheep,,,,best mutton breed of india…

Mandya: Compact body with typical reversed "U" shaped conformation

from the rear…shortest breed…also called bannur or bandhur….

Marwari…in horse also

Garole….prolific sheep breed

Changthangi ,,,ladakh

Malpura…rajasthan

TN…mecheri, ramnath white,vembur, nilgiri, madras red,,kilakarsal

Magra/Bikaneri: White face with light brown patches around the eyes is
characteristic of this breed

Mecheri…Highest quality skin

Merino: most popular fine wool breed of the world, originated in Spain

Polworth…It is evolved by crossing Lincoln ewes and Merino Rams in

U.K.

Best mutton nreed…suffolk

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Hissardale: Australian Merino rams with Bikaneri (Magra) ewes and

stabilizing the exotic inheritance at about 75 per cent

Avikalin: carpet wool strain evolved at CSWRI, Avikanagar, Rajasthan

from Rambouillet (1/2 to 5/8) and Malpura (1/2 to 3/8) with exotic
inheritance at 50% level.

Avivastra: Apparel wool strain evolved at CSWRI, Avikanagar in

Rajasthan from 5/8 to 3/4th Rambouillet and 3/8 Chokla and ¼
Malpura

Avimans – mutton synthetic, developed at CSWRI, Rajasthan by

crossing Malpura and Sonadi with Dorset and Suffolk with exotic
inheritance at 50% level.

Harnali: (Russian Merino + Corriedale = 62.50 %) and Indigenous (Nali)

37.50 %

Bharat Merino: evolved at CSWRI from Rambouillet or Soviet Merino

and Chokla, Malpura or Nali with exotic inheritance 75%.

Sandyno: a fine wool breed evolved at Sheep Breeding Research Station,

Sandynallah, Ooty, Tamil Nadu from interse mated population of 5/8
Merino and 3/8 Nilgiri.

Per kg of feed taken animals need water…example..poultry

2L…pig…3l…goat sheep , cow…4 l……cow also need 4 l of water per l of
milk produced

Metabolic water: Amount of water produced in the body during various

metabolic activities. It comprises of 5-10% of total intake of the
nutrient.eg…1 g Glucose or sugar 0.60g …………… 1g Starch 0.56g……. 1g
Protein 0.40g……1g Fat 1.07g

Age of weaning 4 months…. Age of castration….2 week…

Crone - An old broken mouthed ewe which has been retained in a breeding flock because of
her excellent breeding performance.

Seggy - A ram castrated after service.

Yeld or Eild - A barren or non lactating animal.

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PIG

Group of animals …drove

Ghoongroo: West Bengal; heart shaped ears

Tenyi Vo: Nagaland; Small pig with white hooves (sometimes nicknamed
“the pig with white stockings”).

Poland china USA

Tamworth (Irish grazer): Golden brown (or) golden red

Large white Yorkshire…. England …Most Popular English Bacon breed,

Heaviest breed of pig

Middle white Yorkshirec…England…excellent pork breed….Cross b/w

Large white yorkshire and small white yorkshire

Berkshire: Black coat with 6 white points – one each on 4 feet, on the
face and on the tip of the tail.England

Landrace….Denmark…..Highest quality bacon in world

Duroc…U.S.A…..Most popular U.S. breed.

… Piglet/Piggling/Shoat- Young one of pig of either sex.

Barrow/Hog- Castrated male pig before sexual maturity.

Stag- Castrated male pig after sexual maturity. Open gilt- A young female
pig which has not been serviced. Sty- Pig shed.

Coupling- Act of mating in pig.

'prohibited pig feed' or 'swill'.

Card/Crit/Runt- Smallest piglet in a litter usually the last to be farrowed,

having lowest birth weight. Store pig- Pigs between weaning and
fattening.. Farrowing- Act of parturition in pig.Drove/Stock/Herd-
Group of pigs.

Marketing age= 6 months. FCR = 3 to 3.5

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Dressing percentage= 65-80 %...In the beginning Hampshire breed was

called as thin rind. Age at puberty= 6-7 months..

Sex ratio (M:F)= 1:10…estrus cucle..21 days..

Gestation period= 114 days (3 months, 3 weeks, 3 days)

Suckling period/ weaning age= 2 M

Best age for castration of pigs not to be used for breeding is 1-2 weeks.

Ear notching in pigs is the common method used for identification and
marking

Four pairs of sharp needle teeth or wolf teeth present in piglets are
clipped by means of tooth clippers to prevent any damage to mother.

Flushing of gilts/sows is done to make sure a gain of 500 g/day two

weeks before breeding.it helps to increase shedding of more number of
ova thereby increasing the litter size

Dental formula of pig= 3143/3143*2=44

Pigmy hog= Sus salvanius- Critically endangered

Indian wild boar= Sus scrofa…domestic pig= Sus domesticus

Farrowing sow floor space….7.5-9.0 m2………….Boar 6.25-7.50,,,.. Dry

sows/gilt…1.8-2.7

Age of castration….1 week,,,

Horse…

Mating…covering….young male…colt….female above 1

year…filly…castrated maled…gelding

Rig-Male horse of 1 year or over in which one or the both testicles are
retained in the abdomen. (Single rig or monorchid, double rig or
cryptorchid)

Jenny- Female ass.

Pony- Small horse less than 14 hands

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Broken horse- A well trained horse

Strapping- it means thorough grooming

Dental star and Galvayne’s groove are related to incisors of horses.

Dental Star (mark on central pulp cavity of incisors) & Galvayne, s
groove (a groove in upper corner incisor) are related to incisors of
horses.

Estrus cycle…21 days

Placenta does not allow transfer of maternal antibodies in equines.

Hence, foal has to obtain antibodies against infection from the
colostrum.

Foal heat- 6-12 days post parturition, most mares come into heat. Mating
should not be done, as there is great chance of developing uterine
infections. 4-6 months is the ideal age for weaning of foals.

Regardless of when a foal is born, its birth date is always considered as

January 1.

Foaling box= 14 feet × 14 feet (4.27 m × 4.27 m)

Stallion is also called entire… Yearling- A horse over one year and under
two year.

Dentition 3133/3133..40…canine absent in mares…so 36

Equine is order perrissodactyla others artiodactyla…Katcchhi sindhi…

Famous for its ‘Rewal chal’ as it performs with great speed and stamina
covering long distance

Kathiawari…..Kathiawar Region (Gujarat)…..Best breed of Horse.

Manipuri…Very famous for race and polo purpose. Also known as polo
horses

Omasum is absent in pseudo ruminants and include Llama, camel ,

alpaca,vicuna

Hoof marking for identification …Branding is most suitable for marking

of cattle, buffaloes, camels &horses. It causes partial burning of tissue &
produces a permanent scar. The lower part of the thigh is the best site for
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branding. Tattooing is the best method for identification of sheep, goat

&newborn calves. Best site for tattooing is inside the ear between large
veins. Tattooing is not suitable for black coloured animals. Wing tagging
is commonly used in poultry birds &done on the 1st day of hatching

Camel ..chromosome no 74… cat, swine 38…yak 60…mithun 58

Dentition.. 2(I1/3C1/1PM3/2M3/3) =34…….dog 3142/3143……..42

Male…Maiya/oont….female…Sand …group…Tola …act of

mating…Lakhana

Parturition..Calving

Young male… Tordia…… young female… Tordi

Indian camels are mainly two types- Plain camels & Hill camels..

Plain camels includes- Riverine camels & Desert camels…

Hill camels & Riverine camels are Baggage type whereas Desert camels
are Riding type…

Bactrian ( 2-humped): found in central Asia upto Mangolia and china.

Also known as Asian Camel……

Dromedary/ Arabian (single humped)

Kharai from Bhuj (Guj.) …Also known as “swimming camel”…It can

swim up to 3 Km.in to the sea in search of mangrove (primary
food)…Tolerant to high saline water

Bikanari….Best Camel Breed….Head and ‘stop’ (hollow above eyes, locally called
pangal)
Jaiselmeri….Famous for riding….. no distinct ‘stop’.

She-camel gestation…390 days (1year+1month+1day)…onset of

puberty…3 to 4 yrs….camel life span 40 years….

Rabbit 35 days.. Guinea Pig …Cavia porcellus 65 days….Hamster

…Mesocricetus auratus 16-18 days

Water requiremenyt…..cattle , horse , buffalo…35 L

Pig…25 L….sheep , goat…18 L…poultry 250 mL

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Dung production….buffalo..30 kg…catlle..24 kg…horse…14 kg…sheep

,goat…2 kg…

Pig 4 kg…poultry…3kg for 100 birds…

1-Livestock unit =1adult cattle/buffalo = 2 Pigs = 3 Calves = 5

Sheep/Goat

;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;

Poultry…Fowl stomach is 2-chambered (Proventriculus +

Gizzard/Ventriculus)…. The proventriculus is known as
glandular stomach while gizzard is known as the muscular
stomach

First candling: on the 7th day of incubation to discard infertile

eggs

Second candling: 0n 18th day of incubation to discard dead-

in-shell

During first 18 days of incubation:- 37.6 dergree,, 60% R.H… later 70..
37 degree

Nicobari: produces highest number of eggs under free ranging condition

among all the Indian breeds.

American Class: Rhode Island Red, Plymoth Rock, New Hampshire,

Jersey Giant

English Class: Australorp, Cornish, Dorking, Orpington, Sussex

Mediterranean Class: Leghorn, Minorca, Ancona, Andalusian

Asiatic Class: Brahma, Cochin, Langshan

Arunachali is a breed of yak

…………………………………………………………………………………..
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Group of cat is called clowder….

Bullock: Castrated bull for draught purpose…. Steer: Castrated bull for
meat purpose

LAB ANIMALS….

Kit- Young rabbit of either sex, which has not yet opened its eyes.

Fryer- Rabbit of 3 month that is ready for market.

Kindling- Act of parturition in rabbit. Roaster- Culled rabbit.

Fur- Wool of rabbit……….Pelt- Skin of rabbit. Rabbits are induced

ovulators

Guinea‑pig nutrition is one of the few species unable to synthesize its

own vitamin C; and must be provided in the diet or drinking water as
ascorbic acid.

Specified Pathogen Free (SPF) animals are defined as animals that are
free of specified microorganisms and parasites, but not necessarily free
of those not specified.

Dental formula of rabbit:- 2033/1023×2=28

Dental formula of rat and mice:- 1003/1003×2=16

Chromosome no.(2N) in hare= 48…rabbit….44

Gall bladder is absent in rat.

Oestrus cycle last for 4 days..

Chromosome no. (2n)

40….mice

42…rat

44….rabbit, hamster

64….g.pig
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The universally recognized essential methods for livestock improvement

[four pillars] are…..breeding, feeding, weeding and heeding….
Heeding:Implies good animal management and general supervision///

Livestock estrus cycle is 21 days generally…..but in sheep and goat 17

Central frozen semen production and training

institute(CFSPTI)…Hessarghata

Central poultry development organization(CPDO) (Chandigarh)

National Research Centre on Equines (NRCE) …Hisar

National Research Centre on Camel (NRCC)….Bikaner

National Research Centre on Pig (NRCP) Rani, Guwahati, Assam

National Research Centre on Yak Dirang, West Kameng, Arunachal

Pradesh

National Research Centre on Mithun…Jharnapani, Medziphema,

Nagaland

National Research Centre on Meat Hyderabad, Telangana

Indian Grassland And Fodder Research Institute (IGFRI)…..Jhansi , UP

National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources Karnal

Project Directorate on Cattle…Meerut , UP

Project Directorate on Poultry…Hyderabad, Telangana

Project Directorate on FMD …Bhopal, MP

Central Institute of Research on Buffaloes (CIRB)….Hisar, Haryana

Solely livestock production systems (L) - Livestock systems in which more than 90 percent
of dry matter fed to animals comes from rangelands, pastures, annual forages and purchased
feeds and less than 10 percent of the total value of production comes from non-livestock
farming activities.

Landless livestock production systems (LL).- Subset of the solely livestock production
systems in which less than 10 percent of the dry matter fed to animals is farm-produced and
in which annual average stocking rates are above ten livestock units (LU) per hectare of
agricultural land.
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Grassland-based systems (LG).- Subset of solely livestock production systems in which

more than 10 percent of the dry matter fed to animals is farm-produced and in which annual
average stocking rates are less than ten LU per hectare of agricultural land.

Mixed-farming systems (M)- Livestock systems in which more than 10 percent of the dry
matter fed to animals comes from crop by-products or more than 10 percent of the total value
of production comes from non-livestock farming activities.

Rain-fed mixed-farming systems (MR).- A subset of the mixed systems in which more than
90 percent of the value of non-livestock farm production comes from rain-fed land use.

Irrigated mixed-farming systems (MI).- A subset of the mixed systems in which more than
10 percent of the value of non-livestock farm production comes from irrigated land use.

Dry Farming: It refers to an area which receives 20cm or less of annual rainfall. Crops are
entirely dependent on rainfall

Collective farming: It implies the collective management of land wherein large number of
families or villages residing in the same village pool their resources. The members work
together under a management committee elected by themselves

Co-operative Farming:. The farmers would pool their land, labour, capital, management is
under a democratic constitution on a voluntary basis.

Capitalistic Farming (Estate Farming): The ownership of such farms is under rich persons
or capitalists

HEIFFERETTE- Heifer that have calved once and then fed for
slauaghter,

BOBBY CALF- calves usually of only a week or so old.

ESCUTCHEON/ MILK MIRROR - The area at rear of cow that extends

just above and in back of the udder where the hair turns upward in
contrast to normal downward direction of hair. MILK WELL- Opening in
the cow’s abdomen through which the mammary vein passes on its way
to heart from the udder.

NONRETURNS- The conventional method of measuring “fertility” in

artificial breeding. If after an original insemination, a cow is not reported
for reinsemination within a certain designated period , she is considered
a “nonreturn” and is assumed to be pregnant.
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SPRINGER- A term commonly associated with the female cattle showing

sign of advanced pregnancy,,,also called down calver…

IODINATED CASEIN-(THYROPROTEIN)-

SCRUB BULL – Non descript or a bull having poor progeny records.

POTTER BULL- Old bull to be slaughtered for meat.

LEPPY – An Orphaned calf.

SLICK- A horse or cow with no brands, earmark or tag.

JUG – Small pen used to confine ewe and her newborn lamb.

JUDAS-A goat trained to lead sheep upto killing floor.

Sheep Of Highland ,Grunting Ox, Horse Tail Buffalo Or Cold Desert

Camel…..YAK

BREME- Female yak

SKIP- Worthless lamb.

FAKING- It means pulling milk teeth out in order to hasten the eruption
of permanent teeth and so to make the animal appear older.

CHALLENGE FEEDINGmeans the cow with high milk production

potential are to be fed increased quantity of concentrate to ‘challenge’
them to produce to the maximum.

Camel is induced ovulator. Length of estrous cycle in amel is of 28 days.

Pregnant camel left its tail and curls it up in a typical style when
approached by a male. This is known as cocking of tail.

EYEING- To prevent wool blindness in some breeds the excess wool

around the eyes should be clipped away regularly. This process is
referred to as eyeing.

Male should at least be clipped from the neck and from the belly
particularly at the region of penis. This process is referred to as ringing.

CRUTCHING-Removal of wool around the perennial region and base of

the tail of an ewe is known as crutching. This facilitates better mating
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Raddle is nothing but a ram harness containing crayon, which is rubbed

on the ewe’s rump when mating takes place, so that a colour mark is left.
The process of allowing the ram to run along with raddle is termed as
raddling

House of rabbit is called hutch…

The act of giving birth to young one in cat,,,,queening

Group of rabbit/….colony

Group of hen..,,,,brood

Wool

Lock,,, A group of fibres clinging together in fleece

Greasy wool ,,,,Shorn wool with grease and before removal of impurities

Kemp …A coarser and brittle wool fibre, which is discontinuously

growing fibre. The tips are tapering, chalky white in appearance and fully
medullated.

Staple crimp …The natural wave in a greasy lock

Crimp…. Natural waviness of a fibre. Finer the wool more is the crimp.
Very fine wool has 22-30 crimp/inch as per US grade.

Suint….. Secretion of sebaceous gland mostly of alkaline nature having

potassium salts.

Wool yolk…. Wax with suint- a water soluble material in raw wool
referred to as yolk which increases in winter.

Wax… A product of sebaceous gland with small percentage of free acid

alcohol C18 to C30

Rise in wool…. Seasonal increase in flow of wax

Scouring ….Washing treatment of wool with detergent (sodium

carbonate) for removal of impurities from raw wool to obtain clean wool
yield

Carbonization …The process of chemical treatment of wool for removal

of vegetable matter.
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Sweating…. The process of removal of wool by bacterial digestion of

prekeratinous region of fibre root or by application of depilatory agent to
the under surface of pelt.

Rooing ,,,,Plucking of fleece of indigenous sheep having double coat

under going partial moult or loosening of the fibre.

Fellomongering ….The process of Removal of wool fibre from sheep skin

through use of chemical application (sodium sulphide) or administration
(10-14 mg of thallium) for artificial moult in sheep.

Felting….. It is defined as ability of textile material to undergo

irreversible increase in bulk density when subjected to friction and
pressure under suitable physical condition.

Skirting ….Removal of objectionable parts and stains from body of fleece

after shearing.

Hank…. It is a definite length of yarn or thread which is a measure of

quality of wool in worsted system.

Sliver A strand of loose, untwisted fibre produced in carding.

Dry ice (-79°C) or Liquid nitrogen (-196°C) is used for freeze

branding.This method is more effective for animals having black or dark
coatcolor.

Toe-punching-in duck

Dog… 2 (3/3, 1/1, 4/3, 2/3)= 40

Tush - The canine tooth of the horse. It is characteristically present in
stallion or gelding but absent or rudimentary in mares.

Wolf teeth in horses - It is a small vestigial tooth in the position of the

first premolar.

Dental star is also called fang hole…

Galvayne’s Groove- The part of the groove running down the labial
surface of the ground of the upper corner incisors of the horse. It
normally appears near the gum at 10 years, is ½ way down at 15 years,
extends down the whole length of tooth at 20 years, has grown ½ way
out at 25 years, and has disappeared at 30.
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Horse power…..mule, buffalo… 0.75………..bullock…. 0.74…..cow

.45…..donkey.. 0.35

Optimum O2 level of incubator is 21%.....Optimum CO2 level of

incubator is 0.5%

For every 1% rise in O2level from 21%, hatchability rises by 5% and vice
versa

Haugh unit of standard chicken egg is 72 (range=65-85)…albumen

quality

Yolk index of std.egg is 0.50,,,this is Yolk height/Yolk width

Egg shape index measured by Vernier Caliper…. ESI of chicken egg is 74,
ESI of Duck egg is 72, ESI of quail egg is 78

Shell thicknes using Screw gauge….Shell thickness or Strength of std. egg = 0.30-0.50mm

Specific gravity of egg = 1.060-1.090… Determined by brine flotation

technology

Physiological zero temperature: - the temperature at which

embryonic growth is arrested. its value is 21.10C or 700F

Floor space per chick (in cm2) in 1st week 100-120 cm square
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White Leghorn is best layer breed in the world while Cornish is best
broiler breed in the world. Jersey black giant is heaviest breed &
kadaknath is the lightest breed of poultry in the world.

Aseel… hen is a good sitter& best mother…

Ventriculus/Gizzard/Muscular stomach: It is the largest single organ of

the body.

Double yolk…. More common in Pullet than older hens

Early moulters are poor layer

Broodiness… It is a dominant sex-linked character

Depth of the litters in deep litter: 8-12 inche

Floor space per layer: 14 × 16× 17 inch3

Egg preservation… Water glass treatment: 1part sodium silicate in 10

parts of water, silica seals the pores

Thermo-stabilization method: stabilization of albumin quality (oil bath

at 55 0C for 15 min. or 58 0C for 10 min)
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PHYSIOLOGY
ENDOCRINOLOGY

Endocrinology means within separate

Banting and best discovered insulin

Hauling and starling…. hormone coined name. means I excite

Sanger… amino acid sequence on insulin…. Nobel price

Peptide rer steroid ser

Protein hormone….. transport g coupled(messengers camp dag ip3

eicosanoids)

Steroid through transcription

Hypophysis cerebri …….pituitary gland

Adenohypophysis (pars distalis..<anterior pituitary>*** .intermedia

msh……..pars tuberalis)
Pars distalis contains chromophils and chromophores
Chromophores (inactive)

Chromophils(acidophils GH PROLACTIN)basophils TSH ACTH FSH LH

GH( Through igf1*** or somatomedin c from liver)(igf 2 or somatomedin a)

if overproduction occurs before closure of epiphysial line gigantism
otherwise acromegaly

PRO OPIOMELANOCORTIN (Pomc) produced in pars intermedia is the

precurcer or ACTH ,lipotropic,MSH,b endorphin

Alpha MSH is derived from acth

Neurohypophysis secrete …vasopressin or adh(deficiency cause diabetics

insipidius) oxytocin

Thyroid gland t4/t3 15:1 to 44:1 t4 has more affinity to binding protein
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T4 is prohormone ….t3 in free form is more active…. t3 is 5time more

potent

Half Life of t3 1day…. t4 1 week

Hyperthyroidism…. toxic goitre…. graves disease….. exophthalmos

Hypothyroidism goitre
Myxedema
In child cause cretinism

Osteoblasts bone formation

Parathyroid glands are 4 in number

Pth produce more calcium in blood like calcitriol

Calcitonin from parafollicular or c cells of thyroid

In reptails and amphibians from ultimobranchial glands

Pancreas… delta cells somatostatin….. alpha cells glucagon ….f cell

polypeptide
Insulin from Pancreas(β-cells of islets of Langerhans)

Insulin half Life…. 5 min cause storage of glucose fatty acids proteins others
are opposite

Diabetics melitus type 1 insulin dependent loss of b cells..promote na

resorption in dct

In birds glucagon play predominant role...

Glucagon is ketogenic gh also

Adrenal cortex (outer glomerulosa mineralocorticoid(aldosterone)

Middle fasciculata glucorticoid(cortisol)
Inner reticularis androgens

Cortisol permissive to glycogen in gluconeogenesis and with epinephrine in

glycogenolysis....
Less secretion produce Addison's disease
More secretion moon face plus Cushing's...
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Produce anti insulin effect in muscle by inhibiting glucose uptake in muscle

Aldosterone increase bp. Increase renal Na+ reabsorption and K+

secretion & H+secretion..renin angiotensin pathway..increase of K or
decrease of na sensed by macula densa of dct

Angiotensin converting enzyme in lungs

Catecholamines from adrenal medulla,,,epi and not epi...epi on b2

adrenergic receptor...promote lipolysis

Estrogen from Ovary (Theca interna of Graffian

follicle)… Responsible for growth of duct system of mammary gland
Progesterone…. Responsible for alveolar growth of mammary gland
Renin from Kidney Catalyze the conversion of Angiotensinogen to
Angiotensin-I
1,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol(active form of vita.D) from Kidney Increase
intestinal absorption of calcium & bone mineralization
Erythropoietin from Kidney Increase RBCs production
…….
Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)from Heart Increase renal Na+ secretion
&K+ reabsorption
; reduce blood pressure

ADIPOSE TISSUE..
Leptin,asprosin
Leptin…is satiety hormone… Inhibits appetite, simultaneously speeding up
metabolism

Asprosin… Stimulates the liver to release glucose into the

blood stream

Gastric glands…..
Ghrelin , gastrin, secretin,cholecystokinin/CCK/pancreozymin

Ghrelin….(“Hunger hormone”)

Gastrin from Stomach (G-cells) ….Stimulates secretion of gastric acid (HCl)

by the parietal cells of the stomach
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CCK…from duodenum.. Stimulate gall bladder contraction& release of

pancreatic enzymes

***** Renin(secreted by kidney) while Rennin(secreted by stomach)

Diabetis Mellitus type 1,,,, Autoimmune destruction of β-cells leads to little

or no insulin production,…. Insulin-dependent diabetes (IDDM) or Juvenile-
onset diabetes

Type 2… Insulin resistance & inability of β-cells to produce appropriate

amount of insulin… Non-insulin dependent diabetes (NIDDM) or Adult
onset diabetes…seen more than type 1

The largest endocrine gland of the body is thyroid while smallest is pineal
Largest endocrine organ of the body is GIT
The largest gland of the body is liver
The largest organ of the body is the skin
Total body water of animal body: 60-70% of body weight…….intracellular
fluid is more….40 percent of body weght……extracellular 20 percent of
body weight….
Total blood volume in animal body: 8% of body weight
Plasma volume in animal body: 5% of body weight
Mineral content of animal body: 3% of body weight
The weight of animal heart: 0.6% of body weight

BEHAVIORAL PHYSIOLOGY

Bergman rule similar to Newton's laws of cooling ...surface area and hot
dessipation...more heat dessipated

Allen rule small extremity in cold climate animals

Wilson's rule cold climate animals have good coat

Glogers rule….. Dark skin pigmentation in hot climate

Claude Bernard rule climatic changes with body changes...eg contract of

blood vessels

Habituation….. weakening of response

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Conditioning or associative learning ( classical bell ....pavlov )(operrant or

instrument or trial and error in rewards)

Insight …..learning or weakening ability to solve problems

Imprinting ….mother

Killing of animal in a group..

butter syndrome

Preference to live in flock is called gregarious behaviour

Methyl p hydroxy benzoate pheromone in dog

Aschoff rule increase in free running period by increasing light in nocturnal

animal but from decrease in diurnal animals

Epinephrine nor epi and thyroxine in non shivering thermogenesis

Forced conduction,Non evaporation heat loss in birds

Relative humidity hygrothermometer

Radiation black globe thermometer
Speed of wind anemometer
Directions wind vane

Right heart failure in cattle at high altitude brisket disease

Decompression disease or bends or caissons disease or dysbarism or divers

paralysis

Digestive

Normal ruminal PH 6.5-6.8

Gas production CO2: CH4 (65: 35)
Ruminal microbial population(per ml of rumen liquor)…Bacteria (1010-
11), Protozoa(106 ), Fungi….mostly flagellated fungi
(103),Bacteriophage(109)
Mostly bacteria are gram (−) ve & obligate anaerobes. However, Lactic acid
producing bacteria are facultative Anaerobes
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The majority are ciliate protozoa.The ruminal microbial population is

decided by protozoa because protozoa eat on bacteria

Monosaccharides Pentose sugar (Ribose, Deoxyribose, Xylose, Arabinose)

Hexose sugar (Glucose, Galactose, Fructose, Mannose)

Disaccharides Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose), Lactose (Glucose + Galactose),

Maltose (Glucose + Glucose), Cellobiose(Glucose+Glucose)…. Maltose have
α −1,4 glycosidic linkage while cellobiose have β−1,4 glycosidic linkage

Trisaccharides… Raffinose(Glucose + Galactose + Fructose)

Polysaccharides ….Homo-polysaccharides (Cellulose, Glycogen, Starch,
Dextrin)
Hetero-polysaccharides (Hemicelluloses, Chitin, Pectin)

Cck and secretin from duodenum

Choleresis or bile secretion is continuous

Deglutition , education centre medulla

Vomiting nerves 5 7 9 10 12

അഅഅഅഅഅ nitrogen in rumen 5/25mg:dL...glutamine help in this through

reverse TCA cycle

Starch on action with amylase ….dextrins and glucose

Proteases depeptidase. .. ...peptones and amino acid
Peptones aminopeptidase....amino acids

Pancreas enzyme …..protease lipase amylase

Pancreatic lipase steapsin

Pancreatic amylase amylopsin

Defaunation: Selective removal of protozoa from the ruminal ecosystem

Chemical defaunation: Copper sulfate & Sodium lauryl sulfate
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Normal plasma conc of bilirubin .5mg/100ml

Direct vanderberg test .?.conjugated bilirubin.... obstruction

jaundice...urobilinogrn test also negative...

Indirect Vandenberg tst.... hemolytic jaundice.....free bilirubin...kidney only

excrete conjugated....

Trypsin activates pro forms of elastase , carboxypeptidase into their active

form

Site of absorption of carbohydrate in ruminants is Ruminal wall(through

passive
diffusion) and in non ruminants in Small intestine (by active transport)
Site of absorption of protein in ruminants is Ileum) and in non ruminanats
at Duodenum & Jejunum
Site of absorption of fats in at proximal part of jejunum
Some precursers…. Glucose- Propionate… Cholesterol -Acetyl- CoA…..
Prostaglandins--- Arachidonic acid…. Thyroxin,
Catecholamines(Epinephrine&Nor-epinephrine)--- Tyrosine amino acid

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Extracellular fluid contains interstitial fluid, trancellular fluid and plasma
fluid..
Plasma volume/Intravascular fluid(PV/IVF): 5% of animal body weight
Transcellular fluid (TCF): Found in body cavities.It includes cerebrospinal
fluid, synovial fluid, intraocular fluid, urine, bile & fluid of digestive tract
ICF > ECF > ISF > PV > TCF
Heavy water (deuterium oxide) & radioactive water (tritium oxide) are use
to measure total body water (TBW}
Inulin is use to measure ECF & glomerular filtration rate (GFR)… ICF cannot
be estimated directly…
Evans blue dye (T-1824) is use to measure plasma volume…
Water loss… Sensible water loss: urine, stool…………. Insensible water loss:
sweating, respiratory water loss
… Normal pH=7.4 Venous blood is more acidic than arterial blood because
of CO2..
Blood consist of plasma and formed elements…. 55% of total blood volume
is plasma & remaining 45% is formed elements…. Colour of plasma is due
to presence of bilirubin..
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Formed elements include wbc rbc and platelets… Upper layer- Plasma
(55%] Middle layer/interface/buffy coat: Leukocytes & Platelets (< 1%)….
Lower layer: Erythrocytes (45%)

extrinsic pathway…also called tissue factor pathway 1 fibrinogen 2

prothrombin 3 tissue thromboplastion.. 7*stable factor or proconvertin****
.10 Stuart factor

intrinsic 1 2 8 antihemophilic 9 Christmas 10 11 plasma thromboplastin 12

hageman

Fibrin stabilising factor 13

Factor IX: Antihemophilic factor B/Christmas factor/Plasma

thromboplastin component (PTC)
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Factor XI: Plasma thromboplastin antecedent (PTA

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Extrinsic pathway is faster than intrinsic pathway

Enzyme responsible for clot lysis: Plasmin

Key enzyme in blood coagulation or hemostasis: Thrombin

Heparin: Natural or In-vivo anticoagulant, produced by mast cells&

basophils

Sodium fluoride:blood anti coagulant used for glucose estimation

Sodium citrate: used in blood transfusion in animals & for study of blood
coagulation

Basophils release histamine and heparin..natural anticoagulant…

Vasodilators:
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Nitric oxide (most potent); Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP); histamine,

heparin, bradykinin,
vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), Platelet activating factor (PAF),
Substance P, Prostacyclin(PGI2), PGE2
Vasoconstrictors
Endothelin (most potent), vasopressin(ADH), Angiotensin II,
norepinephrine, dopamine, thromboxane, neuropeptide Y(NPY)
Epinephrine acts as both vasoconstrictors as well as a vasodilator. When
epinephrine acts on alpha receptors it causing vasoconstriction & on beta
receptors causing vasodilation. The affinity of epinephrine for beta-
receptors is greater than its affinity for alphareceptors.

Leucocytes…. Granulocytes: Neutrophils, Eosinophils & Basophils,,,,

Granulocytes are also known as Polymorphonuclear leukocytes
(PMN/PML/PMNL)
Agranulocytes: Monocytes, Lymphocytes (B-cells, T-cells & Natural Killer
cells)…. Agranulocytes are also known as Peripheral Blood Mononuclear
Cells (PBMCs)

1st line of def…neutrophil…immatured ones are band cells…matured are

segmented…. Heterophils: Avian neutrophils

Monocytes Largest leukocyte and largest blood cell… Monocytes

transformed into macrophage on entering the tissues;,,,,mainly in chronic
infections….
Lymphocytes ..in antibody prodn…. Plasma cells derived from B-
Lymphocytes & produce antibodies against infections…. Plasma cells have
Cartwheel shape nucleus
Serum = Plasma – (Fibrinogen + Other clotting factors)

Birds have nucleated erythrocyte & nucleated thrombocytes

Order of size or diameter of blood cells: WBC > RBC > Platelet
No. of blood cells per μl of blood: RBC > Platelets > WBC…..

Most numerous leukocytes in ruminants, pig & poultry: Lymphocyte (60-

65%)
Most numerous leukocytes in horse, dog & cat: Neutrophils (60-65%)

Basophils resemble with mast cell histologically. Both cells produce

heparin, histamine, serotonin, bradykinin & lysosomal enzymes in areas of
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inflammation… Basophils enhance allergic reactions, whereas eosinophils

tend to dampen them.

Macrophages…. Monocyte: Bone marrow/Blood

Kupffer cell: Liver
Dust cell/Alveolar macrophage: Lungs
Microglia: Brain
Glomerular mesangial cell: Kidney
Hofbauer cell: Placenta
Osteoclast: Bone
The largest size of RBC found in the dog (7 μm) & smallest in goat (4 μm)

Lymphoid organs…. Primary lymphoid organs (sites of lymphopoiesis):

Places where the B& T lymphocytes differentiate from stem
cells……Examples: -Thymus, Bone marrow, Bursa of Fabricius
Spleen is the largest lymphoid organ of the animal body

Secondary lymphoid organs: Examples: -Spleen, Lymph nodes, Tonsils

&adenoids, Peyer‟s patches & appendix

Antigen presenting cells (APCs):

It includes dendritic cells, macrophages & B-lymphocytes & they present
antigens to T-helper cells.

Immunoglobulins…….
IgG 80% Most abundant IgS in body; Crosses the placenta & provides
natural
passive immunity to the newborn…..

IgA It is mainly found in sweat, tears, saliva, mucus, colostrum, intestinal

secretions so it is also known as “secretory antibody”…..

IgM 1st antibody produced by B-Lymphocytes at the time of infection…..

IgD Mainly found on the surfaces of В cells as antigen receptors, where it

activates В cells for antigen recognition……
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IgE < 0.1% Protection against allergy, parasitic diseases & hypersensitivity

Innate immunity/Non-specific immunity: By-birth immunity. It consists of

a first & second line of defenses….. First line of defense: Skin, mucous
membranes, secretions like gastric HCl, tears, saliva etc…….. The second
line of defense: Inflammation, fever, interferons, complement system,
natural killer cells (NK cells) phagocytes such as neutrophils, macrophages
& eosinophils
Acquired/Adaptive/Specific immunity: Develops during the course of life
when any foreign antigen is entering in the body.
. It consists of the 3rd line of defense that includes B and T Lymphocytes &
antigen presenting cells.

Types of acquired immunity

(A) Active Immunity: It develops when the body cells produce antibodies in
response to infection or vaccine.
Natural active immunity: By any infection
Artificial active immunity: Vaccination, Tetanus toxoid/ Tetanus vaccine
(B) Passive immunity: by direct antibody inoculation
Natural passive immunity: Antibodies transfer from mother to foetus via
placenta or via colostrum Artificial passive immunity: Injection of
antiserum that contains antibodies e.g.- anti-tetanus serum (ATS)

Polycythemia: An increase in the total RBC mass of the blood

Anisocytosis: Unequal size of red blood cells…..
Anemia….. Normocytic & Normochromic: occurs in chronic disease
Microcytic & Hypochromic: due to deficiency of iron…. Macrocytic &
Hyperchromic: due to deficiency of cobalt, vitamin B12 & folic acid…
Aplastic anemia: due to lack of functional bone marrow
…
Hemoglobin (Hb) & its forms:
(1) Oxy-haemoglobin/HbO2/Bright red colour: formed by oxygenation of
Hb
(2) Carboxy-haemoglobin/HbCO/Bright cherry red colour: Hb combines
with carbon monoxide.
(3) Met-haemoglobin/Chocolate brown colour: formed by oxidation of Hb
(eg: Nitrate poisoning, chlorate poisoning) It is true oxidation product of
Hb
(4) Carbaminohaemoglobin: Hb combines with Carbon dioxide (HbCO2)
…
Neutropenia(Leucopenia)..Decreased number of circulating neutrophils
Lymphocytosis Increase number of circulating lymphocytes occurs during
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Cancer/Tumor/Neoplasm/leukaemia
Increased number of esnophils…esnophelia,,,during anaphylaxis…

Average lifespan of erythrocytes….ruminants….140 days…

Chicken 30 days
B lymphocytes…..3 days..t lymphocytes,,,,3 to 4 years…
Platelets 10 days
ESR in ruminants…zero…..Horse 45 to 90…chicken 1 to 3
Blood glucose…..ruminants…40 to 80mg/dL….chicken…130 to 270
Horse bp…..50/80
The value of packed cell volume (PCV) is generally 3 times that of
hemoglobin value.
Stroke volume: Amount of blood pumped out by the left ventricle in one
contraction

Cardiac output = Stroke volume × Heart rate

Pulse pressure = Systolic pressure – Diastolic pressure
Mean arterial pressure (MAP) = Diastolic pressure + 1/3 Pulse pressure….
Or Cardiac output × Total peripheral resistance

REPRODUCTION

tertiary or graffian follicle has antrum......containing liquor folliculi

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Lamina minora prepuce

Majora scrotum
Clit glans penis

Epididymis transport concentration (4 billion or 4*10^9) storage at cauda

epi, maturation

Accessory glands....( Vesicular gland or seminal vesicles....at

ampullae....cluster of �*****)(prostate non paired)(bulbourethral or
cowpers ..coagulates)

Spermatocytogenesis from spermatogoania to spermatid

Spermiogenesis Golgi phase,cap,acrosome, maturation phase ,Spermiation

release into seminiferous tubule...

Buck seminal vesicles ..... Lysolecithine

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Prescrotal sigmoid flexure...boar and camel

Accessory sex organ in horse ampulla secrete....ergithioneine

Trigone area where ureter enter urinary bladder

Normal blood colloid osmotic pressure 30 mmHg

Arcuate artery 100 glomerulus 60'mm effective glomerular pressure
10......efferent,Bowman's 18 ...
Arcuate vein ,dct 10.?.renal pelvis 0

Arterial blood pH 7.4 venous 6.4

Most imp buffer in blood bicarbonate

In cell phosphate

S1 isovolumetric contractiom
S2 isovolumetric relaxation
S3 normal in children
S4 atrial contraction

Resting membrane potential (RMP):-

1) Skeletal muscle: (-) 95 mV
2) Cardiac muscle: (-) 90 mV
3) Smooth muscle: (-) 50 mV
4) Neuron: (-) 70 mV
5) SA-node: (-) 55 mV
6) AV-node: (-) 65 mV
7) Photoreceptor cells: (-) 40 Mv
Conduction speed is low in AV node and highest in purkinje fibres…

Sling Psychrometer: Relative humidity..

Hygrometer: Humidity
Pyranometer: Solar radiation

MUSCLE

Only skeletal muscle is multinucleated and voluntary in nature….cardiac

muscle is straiated…
Three energy systems produce ATP during exercise… a..ATP-CP system
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(ATPCreatinephosphate)…. Immediate energy system ,,,this system is

anaerobic
b…Lactic acid system/Anaerobic ….Short-term energy system eg.200-400
m rac
c….Glycolysis, Aerobic system/Oxidative system… Long term energy
system..

muscle triad consist of sarcoplasmic reticulum and transverse tubule

Simplest unit sarcomere

Myofibrils contain thin ( actin.troponin ..tropomyosin..)and thick filaments

(myosin titin nebulin)

Sarcomeres are separated by z line

Thick filaments represented by a band...or anisotropic band

I band consist of thin filaments only...isotropic

H zone is at middle of a band and contains thik band only

Middle of h zone is m line

Tropomyosin arranged as strands....troponin is located on tropomyosin...3

subunits...(troponin I attached on action...C calcium ion....T tropomyosin..)

Phosphagen system for 100 m race

Glycogen lactic acid system for 400 m
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Aerobic system for jogging

treppe ... condition by stimulating muscles with same strength at different

time.....it contracts more due to available of calcium

Isotonic contraction movement plus shortening plus tension constant

Isometric contraction no movement plus tension increases plus minimal

shortening

Respiratory system…

Costal/Thoracic respiration: dog & cat

Abdominal respiration: ruminants
Thoraco-abdominal respiration: horse, mule, donkey
There are 3 energy systems during exercise… ATP creatinine system
and lactic acud system which are anaerobic and are used as immediate and
short time energy system respectively….third energy system is aerobic or
oxidative system..it is long term energy system,.
70 percent of co2 is transported as bicarbonate and 23 percentage as
carbamino hb…
One molecule of hemoglobin contains four atoms of iron (in Fe++state) &
can transport four molecules of O2
1 gram of Hb carries 1.34 ml of oxygen …100 ml of blood carries 20 ml of
oxygen.

Oxygen hb dissociation curve,… Factors that cause right shift are those
physiological states where tissues require more oxygen…… The causes of
the shift to right are increases in CO2, Acid, 2, 3-DPG or
Diphosphoglycerate, Exercise and Temperature
Bohr effect: effect of CO2 & H+ on the ability of hemoglobin to release
oxygen at tissue side as co2 and h + has more affinity to hb than oxygen,,…

Haldane effect….this explains the oxygenation of blood in the lungs side

displaces carbon dioxide from haemoglobin

Polypnea: Rapid shallow breathing (frequency increase but depth

decrease)
Hyperpnea: Breathing characterize by increase depth, frequency or both
Tachypnea: Rapidity of breathing
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In birds, inspirations, as well as expiration both, are active process while in

the case of mammals, expiration is a passive process & inspiration is active
Tidal Volume (TV) ….Volume of air inspired or expired during normal
breathing

Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)…Maximum volume of air inhaled at the

end of normal inspiration
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)…..Maximum volume of air exhaled at the
end of normal expiration
Residual Volume(RV) ….Volume of air remains in lungs after maximal
expiration

Inspiratory Capacity (IC) Maximal volume of air inhaled after normal

expiration (TV+IRV)

Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)….Volume of air that remains in lung at

the end of normal expiration (ERV+RV)

Vital Capacity (VC) Maximum volume of air which can be forcefully

inspired after forced expiration (IRV+TV+ERV)

Total Lung Capacity (TLC)….Total volume of air present in lungs after

forceful inspiration (IRV+TV+ERV+ RV)

There are two respiratory groups ventral respiratory groups and dorsal
respiratory groups in medulla oblongata…ventral respiratory group deals
with expiration and dorsal respiratory group deals with inspiration…
Pneumotoxic center is present in upper pons to terminate respiration…
Apneustic center is present in lower pons for forceful inspiration….
Central chemoreceptors (H+ & PCO2 sensitive receptors) are located in
medulla oblongata…
Peripheral chemoreceptor are carotid body& aortic arch… (PO2, H+ &
PCO2 sensitive receptors)… located at the bifurcation of carotid arteries &
aortic arch respectively… They are stimulated by decreased PO2, increased
PCO2 & increased H+ concentration in the
arterial blood… Carotid body send their signal to respiratory centers via
Glossopharyngeal nerves… Aortic arch sends their signal to respiratory
centers via Vagus nerves

RESPIRATORY in birds
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Site of gaseous exchange in birds: Parabronchi or tertiary bronchi

Two types of parabronchi: paleopulmonic(ancient lung) &
neopulmonic(new lung)
3 type of secondary bronchi....first 2 give rise to parabronchi which give
rise to paleopulmonic parabronchi.....last one (lateroventral secondary
bronchi) give rise to neopulmonic parabronchi.
Air flow in paleopulmonic parabronchi is unidirectional… Air flow in
neopulmonic parabronchi is bidirectional……. In penguin & emu,
neopulmonic parabronchi is absent….
Respiratory system of birds is more efficient than mammals…. There is no
gaseous exchange in air sacs because air sacs are avascular….
In mammals, alveoli of lungs are lined by surfactant-secreting cells known
as type-II
pneumocytes while birds have granular cells
Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) or Dipalmitoyl lecithin, act as a
pulmonary surfactant./…

Diaphragm is absent in birds

Birds have lungs and nine air sacs (two cervical, two anterior thoracic, two
posterior thoracic, two abdominal, unpaired clavicular)

liverticula air sac to bone

Pneumotaxic centre upper pons...DRG... inspiration

Apneustic centre..lower pons....forceful inspiration....brain

death.....pneumotaxic death...

Peripheral receptors....eg at aortic arch signals vagal nerve...carotid sinus

signals nerve 9 glossopharyngeal

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
++++
Psudo ruminants will also do rumination
Ruminants and pseudo ruminants are foregut fermenters….. Fermentation
occurs before
digestion in the stomach (mainly in rumen)
Hindgut fermenters…horse rabbit ostritch
Horse- sensitive mobile lips…prehensile organ of Cow, Dog &Cat- tongue….
Sheep- tongue & incisors teeth
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The gall bladder is absent in horse as well as in all pseudo-ruminants like-

camel, llama, alpaca,,vicuna.
Common browsing animals- Goat, Camel
Camel normal temp…99.5 F…….Fowl..107
Resp per minute in camel,horse….8-12….dog , fowl…15 -30….cattle…12 to
16
Pulse rate of dog 100-130….fowl….250 to 300…catlle…45 to 65…camel…25
to 32

…
Peripheral Nervous System(PNS): Cranial nerves & Spinal nerves
Autonomic Nervous System(ANS): Sympathetic& Parasympathetic
Somatic Nervous System(SNS): Somatic sensory nerves & Somatic motor
nerves

MEAT

Veal dressing percentage 63...sheep 45-48.. cattle 50-55 quail 60 pig ,

chicken 65-70...cross 70-75 rabbit 52-58

Isolation block or emergency slaughter unit or miniature abattoir

BOD is expressed in terms of ppm or mg/L

Slaughter house bod 1500 to 2000 mg/L

Sewage 250 - 300

In equalisation tank bod is reduced to 35 percent

Rest. 6-24...... maximum 36

Walking
Cow buffalo 6 hr...30 and 25 km respectively...water in 2 hr food in 4 hr
goat sheep calf 6 hr .. 16 km...water in 1hr.... food in 3 hr...4 hr for goat
Pig 8 hours a day.?15 km...water in 1 hr...food in 3 hr
Piglet 6 hours..10 km...water and food similar
214 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

Truck transpork
2 m square for cattle...4 catle per truck 6 per calf 30 sheep

Rail...if distance is more than 500 km...food every 1000 km....braud

gauge...cattle /calf...10/15.... Meter 6/10. Narrow gauge4/6
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Meat proteins are of 3 types… Myofibrillar protein constitute 55 percent

(Actin, Myosin, Tropomyosin ,Desmin, Connectins Troponins-T,C,I),
Sarcoplasmic
Protein constitute 30 percent…. (Myoglobin, Glycolytic enzymes),
Stroma or Connective tissue proteins 10 percent …they are insoluble….
Collagen, Reticulin,
Elastin

Unfit….emaciation .,,, anthrax,find,listeriosis, poisoning,BQ, rabies,

salmonella,swine fever, selenium poisoning,tetunus,
Conditionally unfit. Scour,swine erysipelas,actinomycosis,
Actinobacillosis,

Casualty slaughter Chronic condition eg.obturator paralysis, post-

partum paraplegia

Emergency slaughter Acute pain, fracture of limb, pregnancy toxaemia &

enterotoxaemia in Sheep
217 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

Muscle water(75) : protein(22) == less than 4:1

In emaciated animal it will be more than that

Stunning using free bullet...example greenery cattle killer

Captive bolt pistol...produce acceleration concussion

1 grain=.065g...velocity 76-91m/s
Cattle 3-4 grain.....small animal...1 grain
Green cartridge...large animals.....black .. medium....red for small like
sheep

Pneumatic stunner 80-120psi...penetrative

In non penetrative stunning...the duration of stun and sticking does not

increase 30 sec...in penetrative 60
Sec in cattle...15 for sheep goat...10 for calves

Cash captive bolt 73 m/s..... penetrative..1-7 grain...

Aimed towards the gullet in sheep and goat...top of head for

hornless...behind horn for others....

Gas stunning
CO2 atbmin con of 70... For 45 sec...85 to 90% is good...nitrous oxide
no2 is used...but take more time....bleed within 30 seccc....

CO2 apparatus...combi oval tunnel...10 pigs in 10 compartments...max

size 113 kg...600 pigs per hour...
Dip lift....Manny at a time
Compact CO2 immobilizer...300 per hour....
10 percent for 10 sec,later 30 then 60,,,,,finally 90 for 20 sec....
unconscious for 1 to 2 min

Turkey 75% fowl 70

Electrical stunning...for 5 min.?..75 v and 250 mA (goat)400nA (pig)for

10 second... through thalamus and cortex..more current will pass if well
hydrated with less calorific intake...
missed shock is inhumane...
Rays electrical stunner....Higgs electro lethaler...
Either apparatus best...as current can be controlled
218 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

Low voltage electronic stunner 75 v for 7 sec

High volt....300v for 3 sec

Head to back electrical stunner....better than head only as death occurs

in 23 sec...50 in other....pig 250 V ..1.3 A......calf 375 v...1A

Extension of limb---opisthotonous----rolling of eye----tonic convulsions-

---clonic convulsions

Head to brisket...between nose and neck yoke....550 V 25 A....for 3 sec

Water jet 3900bar

Gagging respiratory movement is a sign of brain death

Rituals
Evernazion method in Spain.italy.mexico.or neck stab method using
double edged punctilla
Jatka method in sikh
Jewish method...act of kitting shechitha according to talmund..the one
who slaughters is shochet..shomer is assistant..pm by shochet is called
searching...curing is called meliha...removal of arteries porging

Bleeding allowed for 4 to 10 min

Shouding application of cloth on animal and pulling after skinning

Scalding 60 - 64 degree for 5 min

Thoracic entrails are called pluck include lungs and heart

Two type of dressing

Shippers style ...head is there...75 percent yield
Packers style 70%... no head,plplick liver

Poultry low voltage 50v for 1 min...bleeding time one to two minute...
Broilers and young hens 55 degree for 15 min
Spent chicken 60 degree for 2 min

Freezer burn of grade 1 chicken should not increase from .5cm and 1.5
cm from grade 2
219 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

Dressing...booth system
Line system (gravity rail 10 to 40 animals per hour, continuous power40
to 120....intermittent power 10 to 75... Canpak system 50 to 150)

Grading is by confirmation,quality and finish(fatness)

Cod fat around tail

Grades of cattle is 6 (prime cattle dress percentage is 63 to 67) choice

cattle 60....good grade cattle 54- 60
Standard 52-58.... commercial cattle ... aged..52-56..utility
cattle..50...cutter and canner cattle...no inferent beef character....
Similar in veal also...prime veal is 4 to 8 week and 20-40 kg...
Immature veal is cattle Bob veal

Last grade of sheep is cull grade

Yearling in goats means 12 to 20 months

Sheep and goat....after utility we have cull..

Butcher should have accuracy of plus or minus 3

cutting room temp 4.4 degree...with 70 to 80 percentage relative
humidity

13 rib is severed and goes with hind limb is called ribbing or

quartering(Chicago style)

The right side of beef carcass is called closed or tight side and left side is
open side or kidney free

When kidney is removed some part of fat remains in tenderloin called as

kidney knob

Loin is decided anteriorly including thoracic and lumbar vertebrae called

shortloin ...and posteriorly includes part of ileum called sirloin...

Forequater(rib,plate,shank,chuck***,brisket) 51 percent..hind (kidney

knob,flank, loin, round*****)49...

Pig cutting..
Boston butt...is the upper one third of the shoulder.....
Lower two third is called picnic shoulder....
220 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

Lamb fabrication
Divided into foresaddle 53% and hind saddle by cutting between the last
two ribs
Foreshank is called turkey leg

In chicken longitudinal cut at 7th Vertebra

Bleeding time cattle , pig 6 min...others 5

Blood in cattle 10 kg...pig 3 kg....goat,calves 1.5kg....poultry 30 to 50g

Blood meal is disinfectanted using ethylene oxide and methyl

bromide....preserved by salt...protein content 75-85

Dried blood serum is used instead of egg albumen...

Blood proteins are used to prepare foam against fire....

Fibrin foam used in surgeries

Bones 15 percent weight of carcass

Bones contain 50 percent water....defatted bone without marrow 1:2 in

organic : inorganic

Organic...ossien...it's bone collegen.

Chemically both glue and gelatin are same..only long bones are
selected..do not heat bones to more than 87 degree or 190 f as gelatin
will get lost...

To remove non collegenous material....add 10 percent calcium hydroxide

or brine or lime...later demineralised using 4 to 10 percent HCl..highest
quality glue at 60 degree or 140...medium quality at 65 or 150...low
quality at 80 degree or 176....lowest quality at boiling point....

The right side of beef carcass is known as Closed/Tight side (kidney

close).

FSIS = Food Safety Inspection Service

Upper 1/3rd of the skinned shoulder of pork carcass is known as Boston

Butt.
221 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

Lower 2/3rd of the shoulder in pork carcass is termed as Picnic

Shoulder.

The bloom of the meat is due to the formation of Oxymyoglobin.

The technique used for sealing the rectum is known as

Bunging….oesophagus is rodding

Preservative of glue...zinc sulphate

Skunk....hide of unborn animal

Bone meal 30 percent calcium..15 p....7 protein...1 fat...

Casings from submucous layer

Round from SI...Runners SI OF CATTLE

MIDDLES LI
MIDDLE CAP OR CAP....CAECUM
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BUNG CAECUM TO ANUS (Crown)

Wasand oesophagus

CHITTETLINGS OR BLACK GUT..LI OF HOG

Maws......hog stomach

1 hank...92 m of goat casing or 90 m of cattle LI or 180 m of cattle Si

Pulling...separating mesentery and fat

Running...same as pulling but uses knife
Chilling
Stripping
Fat removal or fatting
Fermenting..not in cattle...at 21 degree..70 f
Turning...in cattle..in pig
Sliming.. removal of mucosa...sliming soln...1 per nacl and .2 Percent sod
pyrophosphate
Measuring

Grading
Salting and curing

Small greese spots in casing...domestics

Scars of healed wounds.?...cicatrices....
black spot due to putrefaction....rust....

Rounds: -casing from small intestines of sheep, goat

Runners: Casing from small intestine of cattle

Saran casing ...made from synthetic resin...

From synthetic rubber.?plio form casing

Tallow edible fat from cattle .sheep

Best fat...leaf fat from peritonium.?then back fat.

Fat that are unfit for use....suet

Tissue left after taking fat... crackling or greaves
223 | C o m p i l e d b y D r A m e e r S u h a i l

Edible fat is converted to oleo strain and oleo oil

I LB of gland in 1 LB of acetone for preservative

Bones constitute almost 15% of the weight of a dressed carcasses.

Bones form 12-30% of live weight of cattle/buffalo/pig.

Meti steroids [ prednisone & prednisolone] are prepared from bile acids.
The glands should be collected within 15-20min. of slaughter

Cooking of bone at 60*C yields high quality gelatin. Boiling of bone at

100*C yields glue….glue is low grade gelatin..

Cocked hat shaped gland is adrenal gland.

Adrenaline is extracted in alcohol....

Thyroid hormone .pepsin is extracted in acetone
Oxytocin.bile using acetic acid
Insulin using acid alcohol..di ethyl ether is added for precipitation at
isoelectric point...4.5 ph
Crude insulin purified by crystallization using zinc salt or picric acid

Hyaluronidase from testes used to potentiate effect of drug...it's a

spreading factor

Heparin from lung and liver

“neck sweet bread” is thymus.

Melt is a secondary byproduct obtained from Spleen

Bates is a secondary byproduct obtained from Pancreas (used in bading

of leather).

Hyaluronidase from poultry comb and from testis

Neets foot oil from cattle foot...1 pint per animal..from shinbone boiling..

Bone ash or calcide bone as fertilizer

paunch Weight...27 kg in cattle...2.7 kg in sheep....

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Calf skin is skin but old calf that hasn't reached maturity is kip

Finest quality hide from slaughter house....packer hide....frigorifico is

used in South America...

Big goat skin is 1.3 kg...medium*** .9

Hides...1st minor cuts ...2nd regular...but 1 by 16 area show conc

gouges...1 by 8 show dispersed...3rd...12 area with cuts.....reject grade...

Cattle hide 7 percent of weight...sheep goat...11 Percent...

Epidermis--- corium or dermis ( makes up leather)---sub cutis

Nodular dermatitis...viral infection....

streptothricosis by actinomyses...senkobo or krichi.....elephant or rhino
hide...

Warble fly or heel fly or grub...by hypodermidae....lumps are called

grub..

Hide beetle ...dermestes...

Hides from downer animals......pressure sores or deductible gangrene

If the animal is not bled properly results in veiny leather...

Rubbed grain..when animal is pulled in floors

Green hide...62 percent water...hide that is flayed...trimmed and

washed..

Moisture percent of air dried hide 10...dry salting 12... Wet salting 35....

Ministry that governs exports APEDA

Cattle castrated late...stag..

Lamb reared in milk and less than 3 month...houth house lamb

Slaughter lamb does not have 1st pair permanent teeth.

Poker ,barrow , gild is small...baconer large...

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Drainage gradient 1:50....blood dranage 1:25

Ramp max angle should be 30 degree...20 degree in case of pig..

Race or drive...10 m... cattle curved...double filed in pigs.....others v

race...

Bruising...o to 10 hr..red and haemorrhage....10 to 24...dark...24 to

38..watery...after 48..rusty orange and soapy to touch...test conducted
....fouchet test.. trichloroacetic acid plus iron Chloride....no reaction in
first 50 hours...

Journey time directly affect weight loss..

Ham taint and bone taint happens because of improper resting..

Recommended fasting is 10 hr in poultry...12 in others....

Normal meat pH...5.5.. dfd. 6.8

Pse due to halothane (decrease temp) and napole gene...increase muscle
glycogen.

Pithing destroys splanchnic nerve

Space provided for large animals in lairage is 2.8m2 and for small
animals is 1.6m2.

Height of the down grade ramp provided for unloading of animals is

1.2m

Temperature of water used for cleaning should not be less than 82*C

Time required to relieve stress in pigs 72 hrs.

Disadvantage in gravity rail system is height.

The BIS standards adopted in India on April 27 1979

The BIS standards published in 1967.

Bleeding rail for goat, sheep, pigs is 3m height.

Bleeding rail for large animals is 4.5-5m height.
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Dressing rail for sheep, goat, pig is 2-2.2m height.

Dressing rail for large animals is 3.2m height.

Small abattoir upto 30,000 units/year needs 1-2 acres.

Medium abattoir up to 50,000 slaughter units/year needs 2-4 acres.
Large abattoir upto 1 lakh slaughter units/year needs 4-6 acres.

The most of the modern slaughter houses internal temperature between

5-10 degree C is Maintained.

In an abattoir the doors should be provided at a width of 1.37mt.

Loss of weight of animal due to transportation is 3-10%.

Colour of dark firm dry meat is purple.

Animal is affected with chronic disease condition then it done for

causality slaughter

The process of mass burial above ground level is called as mounding.

In healthy animal, water in bone marrow is 25%.

The cash captive bolt pistol uses blank catridges

Carbon dioxide gas was first used to induce pre slaughter anaesthesia in
animals

Dhabiha is the method used to slaughter an animal in Islamic (halal)

tradition.
Slaughterer in halal method is Kitabhi/Mullah.

Bleeding times in pigs without stunning is 6-8 mins.

RENDERING….
There is no loss of nutrients in Dry rendering process. 75 psi for 3-4 hrs…used in
blood meal prep,,.,
Recovery of the fat is better in Wet rendering…. 40 psi for 4-8 hrs.
The low temperature dry rendering is used to produce good quality fats.
In the process of rendering a carcass, the quantity of water to be added should be
one and a half times the weight of the material which is boiled.

In bone digester, long bones are processed at 60 psi for 2 hrs.

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The average rendering conversion in dry & wet rendering is 3:1 & 4:1 respectively.

The CP % of meat cum bone meal is 55%. The calcium % & protein % in case of raw
bone meal is 23 % & 26%. The yield of bone meal from that of raw bone is 1:3.

Blood meal has 10-12% of moisture.

Cattle lick 66 part bone meal 33 part red oxide , 1 part cuso4

The technique of bleeding most commonly used these days for poultry is “Modified
Kosher Method”.

Dressed chicken can be stored in a refrigerator at 2*C for 7 days & deep freezer at -
18 to -20*C for a period of 4-6 months.

Loin eye area is measured by tracing the cross section of longissimus dorsi at 10th
rib on a parchment paper & then determining the area with Polar planimeter.

KPH Fat = kidney, pelvic and heart fat.

Fine wool 17-20microns

Mediumwool 22-24 microns
Carpet wool 25-32 microns

The skin of the older calf which is not reached to maturity is kip.
Skin contain mainly protein….two type of proteins …globular and fibrous…. Globular
proteins of animal skin are albumin & globulin…..Fibrous proteins of animal skin are
keratin, collagen, elastin, reticulin. Collagen a fibrous protein along with the tanning
substance constitutes leather.

Dressing percentage of Japanese quail 60

Lavorette is meat of Rabbit

Mature mutton …….20 month plus

The non-technical tests for identification of wool are feeling test and burn test.
In feeling test while touching wool fiber we feel warmth.burn test is not suitable for
biconstituent polymers..

The two different types of technical tests are microscope test and chemical test. The
terminal test that is very effective for testing natural fabrics is microscope test.

In stain method of chemical test the wool turn to specific color by the action of
dil.acetic acid.
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Wool fibers get completely dissolved when treated with 5%caustric soda/NaOH in
solvent method.

The condition where the coarse fibers which are shed into fleece becomes felted
together is called cotts.

Carpet wool should contain a mix of wool fiber and medullated fibre in the ratio of
65:25.. Shearing of wool is done twice per year In India. Shearing of soiled wool is
called dagging.
Lox refers to wool contaminated with dung and urine… Kemp is a remnant of
original outer coat…..

The water absorbancy of wool is about 30% of its weight… The general fiber length
of fine wool is less than 6cm. The general fiber length of coarse wool is less than10
cm.,,, The minimum no of crimps that should be present in a wool fibre is 2-12.
Keratin protein consists of 3-4% of sulphur.

Oldest system of grading wool is The American/Blood System.

The British/Bradford/Spinning Count System of grading wool is based on amount of
Hanks of yarn.
One Hank = 560 Yards of Yarn

Combing removes vegetable matter as well as short & tangled fibres from the wool.
Removal of vegetable matter from wool using chemical substance is Carbonizing.

Coarse hair fiber on lower hind legs is breech/britch.

The process of removal of impurities from greasy wool is known as Scouring. The
short fibres combed out are called as Noils.
Removal of stained unusual portion of fleece is called skirting
Carding disentangles & seperates scoured wool fibres.

The most common liming agent is hydrated lime (Ca[OH]2) and 0.1%sodium
sulphide… Ammonium sulphate or ammonium chloride are used as the deliming
agents.
The treatment of delimed hides with proteolytic enzymes to make them soft &
pliable is known as bating. Pickling is the process of soaking skin in sulphuric acid.
Tanning is the conversion of hide/skin into insoluble & non-putresible leather
without destruction of original structure.Chromium sulphate chemical is commonly
used as tanning agent.

Total length of wool fiber after removing crimps is fiber length.

Total length of wool fiber in its natural condition without disturbing crimps is staple
length.
A lock or tuft of wool is called staple
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Oil + Suint = Yolk

The most important measurement of wool quality is fibre diameter.

The skin of sheep with wool still attached to it is pelt.

The presence of medulla contribute to thermal insulation by wool fibers.

Vicuna is softest coat cloth in world

The materials made from combing wool are called as Worsted.

The materials made from carded are termed as Woolens.

Hogget wool is the first fleece of sheep which has not been shorn as a lamb.

In case of anthrax, before removing the carcass for disposal, all its orifices are
plugged with cotton soaked in 5% cresol. Temperature at which a carcass is burnt in
an incinerator is 600 to 800˚C. When the carcass is burnt at the site of death, the
depth of pit to be dug for the burning of carcass is 0.5 meters.

Effluent treatment methods are of two types namely, primary and

secondary.Primary method of effluent treatment reduces 90% fat, 50-65% solids ,
35% BOD.

The Oxidation ditch system was developed by Dr. A. Pasveer

The maximum level of ammonia in potable water is 0.5 mg/litre

A criteria that separates acceptability from unacceptability is called Critical limit.

Any action to be taken when the results of monitoring at the CCP indicate a loss of
control is called Corrective action.
Failure to meet a critical limit is called Deviation.
The act of conducting a planned sequence of observations or measurements of
control parameters to assess whether a CCP is under control is called as Monitoring.
Obtaining evidence that the elements of the HACCP plan are effective is called
Validation.
The application of methods, procedures, tests and other evaluations, in addition to
monitoring, to determine compliance with the HACCP plan is called Verification.

GATT – General Agreement on Tariffs & Trade.

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The most suitable ratio of anionic & non-ionic detergents for meat industry is 2:1.

Example of a chelating agent EDTA

72% water & remaining 28% DM (DM consists of 21% Protein, 6% Fat & 1% Ash)

Brown color of meat is due to metmyoglobin

Pink color of cured meat is due to nitro-haemochromogen

Vita.B12: Vitamin found in highest amount in animal meat.

Niacin: Vitamin found in highest amount in poultry meat.
In pork thiamin

Burning or Incineration method: Preferred method of disposal for anthrax carcass

Freezing: At (−) 18 degree C

Curing: Oldest method of preservation of meat…. The permissible level of nitrate is

500 ppm & nitrite is 200 ppm

Canning: Sterilization of product in thermatically sealed container at 121 deg C

Gamma rays are cheapest & most frequently used radiation in food preservation
Gamma-rays are obtained from isotopes like Co60 & Cs137

For chilling room: 110 Lux or 10 ft candle

The five principles of schechita: Neck should be severed without pause, pressure,
stabbing, slanting or tearing

MILK
pH 6.6

Acidity more in colostrum due to protein

Natural or apparent acidity increases keeping quality … due to casein

Developed or true or real acidity ,,,,due to lactose
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NDDB 1965

Operation flood 1970-81 (World food program), 81- 85, 85- 96( World
Bank plus EEC)

Water up to 3% allowed for adulteration

Presence of neutralizers is identified by Rosalic acid test… In Rosalic

acid test appearance of pink color NaOH, KOH,CaOH.. In Rosalic acid
test appearance of rose red color – sodium carbonate or sodium bi
carbonate.. In Rosalic acid test appearance of brown color – Absence of
any neutralizers

Gelatin is identified by Picric acid test. Yellow precipitate is positive.

Cane sugar is identified by Resorcinol test. Red color is positive

Glucose is identified by Barfoed test. Red precipitate is positive.

Buffalo milk in cow’s mild is identified by Hansa test.

Skim milk powder is identified by Nitric acid test. Orange color is

positive. Yellow color is normal milk.
Storch,s peroxidase test Mixing of heated milk in fresh milk
Bromo-cresol-purple solution detect Detergent in milk
Picric acid solution Gelatin in milk
p-dimethyl amino benzaldehyde reagent detect Urea in milk

Energy of milk fat 9.3 KC/g protein, sugar 4kc/g

Cow milk contains 3% casein while buffalo milk contains 4.3% casein..

Casein is responsible for viscosity & white colour of milk

There are three types of casein protein: α, β, γ………….α -casein consists
of two components namely αs-casein (calcium-sensitive casein) and K-
casein (calcium-insensitive casein),,,,αs-casein is precipitated by calcium
ion while K-casein is not precipitated by calcium ion.
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Lactose and ash exist as true solution in milk….fat exist as

emulsion,,,..whey protein exist as colloidal solution and casein exist as
colloidal suspension

Milk and cream are fat in water whereas butter is water in fat…meat is oil
in water

Lactose...alpha at 20 degree or 70f ...in icecream

Beta more sweeter bakery

The proportion of milk stored in cistern/alveolus:-….Goat-80:20,

Sheep:-50:50 , Cattle:-30:70 , Buffalo & Camel :-5:95 , Sow:- 0:100
Arterial blood supply: -by external pudic artery(mammary artery)
Subcutaneous abdominal vein act as an “index for milking ability”
400-500 ml of blood must pass through udder for producing 1 ml of
milk.

On heating browning or maillard reaction...of lactose....brown

pigment...melanoidin

Saturated milk fat 65.... unsaturated mono 30 poly 5

4 butyric....6 caproic...caprylic
8...caprice...lauric...myristic...palmitic...stearic .....
arachidonic20....oleic18:1...lenoleic18:2...linolenic18:3

Protein....casein...form micelle...ppt at 4.6...contain phosphorus...

Serum protein...no ppt micelle phosphorus

Major protease plasmin

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Enzyme alkaline phosphatase indicate pastuarisation through phosphate

test

Lactoperoxidase 30mg/mL...most heat stable enzyme....with hydrogen

peroxide and thiocyanate they show antibacterial effects....

3 type of solid dispersion in milk.....

Coarse....butterfat.....

Colloidal...10^-3 to -6....calcium caseinate... calcium phosphate..

Molecular....less than 10^-6....salt lactose albumin

Specific gravity 1.028-1.030....buffallo...1.030-1.032....skim

milk...1.036....on adding water , fat sg decrease....on removing fat SG
increase….increase by adding solids…..
Sg is measured using lactometer

Skim milk fat is less than 5

Specific gravity of freshly drawn milk is low....recknagel phenomenon

Surface tension is low compared to water... decreased with

heating...presence of fat , protein, aging decreases
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Oxidation reduction potential .2 to .3....increases on contact with

atmosphere....as bacterial action occurs....MBRT....

MILK refractive idex 1.35...water...1.33

Frezzing point...using hortvet cryoscope...-.55degree celcius... addition of

1% water increase it by .006

Boiling point 100.15

During Mastitis electronic conductivity increase...due to chloride...

Due to presence of Cassien...it is sticky....

Cream raising due to decreased sg

Foaming due to lower surface tension

Sweet curdling bacillus ,proteus, micrococcus

Clostridium......grey rot

Ropiness alkaligenes klebsiella enterobacter

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Low temp long time or batch or holding pastuarisation....63 degree for

30 min(water jacketed ,water spray , coil vat type)....

Similar in glass milk pastuarisation

Htst.... 4 --- regenerator 34---74-----regenerator 44---4...72 degree in 15

seconds... Glycol is used as coolant in HTST.

Electrical 163 or 72 in 15 seconds

Vaccine pastuarisation....vacreation...cream pastuarisation...

Stassanisation....Henri stassano...74 degree in 7 sec....

UHT....135 to 150 ...fraction on sec

Uperisation or ultra pastuarisation...150 degree...fraction of second..

Sterilisation... stores milk for min 15 days....115 degree for 15 min....145

for 3 SECC...albumin lost.... negative turbidity test....

Homogenisation ...2 microns or less....viscosity increase...

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Bactofugation .......rpm 60000

THERMISATION: Heating below pasteurization temperature to

temporally inhibit bacterial growth.… 63 to 65 0C for 15 sec

Cream separator works by strokes law (centrifugal force). If fat screw IN

– More fat in cream…. If skim milk screw OUT – more fat in cream

Longer shelf life in dehydration...

Condensed milk...sweetened cream milk...9%fat..31 %solid...40 %cane

sugar...HEATING AT 115 Degree...

Evaporated milk... unsweetened cream milk...both are condensed

meaning removal of water....solids1:2.5.....

Fat 8....TS.....26

Condensed skim milk solids...1:3...fat .5...TS...20...

Sweetened...TS...26...cane sugar...40....

Seeding of condensed milk means addition of thin lactose

Filtration or clarification is done at 35 to 40 degree

Alcohol index...normal 7...3 or less..is unfit..

Alcohol test measure heat stability

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Alcohol alizarin....heat stability plus ph

Di sodium citrate and trisodium phosphate....pilot sterilisation

Pilot sterilisation in evaporated milk is adding of stabilisers....

Bacterial thickening is shown milk where there is contamination which

produce rennin like enzyme

Torula lactis......bloat

Condensed milk drying

Drum drying....scraping using doctor blades...low solubility

Spray drying...

Whole Milk powder fat 26..... moisture.?less try than 5

Solubility index 15 for drum...2 for spray...drum dyred conc ratio...1:3.5,

spray also same

Skim milk fat 1.5 ... standard plate count 50000

Coliform 90.....drum dried conc ratio 1:5.. spray...1:4.5

The quality of skimilk powder measured by non denatured nitrogen

whey protein...
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Air cell is present in spray dryed

High heat skim powder...LTLT

Low heat skim powder...HTST

Milking machine…
Recommended vacuum in machine milking is 10-15 inches ….. The
optimum pulsation rate in machine milking: 60 cycles/minute
Ideal vacuum of milking machine- (a) For cattle: 352 mmHg (b) For
buffalo: 400 mmHg… Pulsation rate should not less than 40
cycles/minute & not more than 120 cycles per minute

Colostrum or beestings is fed to newborn calf @ 10 % of its body wt. (or)

2-2.5 liters per day up to 3-4 days.

Colustrum s g 1.070

Density Hydrometer or Pycnometer(20 C)

Refractive index of milk is 1.344 to 1.348

Fat% Gerber,s butyrometer (Best method), Soxhlet apparatus

pH Cow milk:-6.4-6.6
Buffalo milk:-6.7-6.8

Specific gravity of milk = 1+ CLR/1000 (where CLR is Corrected

Lactometer Reading)… Specific gravity of milk is increased by addition of
skim milk

Cream and butter

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Cream 25%fat

Light or table 25

Coffee or whipping 30-40

Heavy or plastic 65-85

Skimming efficiency... percentage total fat from milk recovered in cream

Cream pastuarisation 71 for 20 min

Htst. 100 degree 15 sec

Clotted cream ...made by heating cream at 88 degree and cooling

Rabri is made from cream

Butter 80 fat… Not less than 80% fat not more than 16% moisture and
not more than 3 % salt… Flavouring agent for butter is Diacetyl. It must
not exceed 4 ppm. Cream for butter making should contain 30 – 40 %
fat… Churning is done at 10 0C not exceeding 30 – 40 min, lose in butter
milk should not exceed fat of
0.2 %....,,, Neutralizers for butter is soda (sodium carbonate and sodium
bicarbonate) and lime (CaOH, CaO)

Real butter flavour by ripening

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Sour cream butter ...acidity exceeds 2%

Ripening of butter is done at 21 degrees for 16 hours....

Overrun due to prence of moisture salt and curd..25%

Flavour of butter due to di acetyl

Judging of butter ADSA....92 for A

Fisher and hookers phase reversal theory

Rahns foam theory

Kings modern theory

Channa obtained from cow 16 to 18

Buffalo 22 to 24
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Pantos, rasagula,chumchum,sandesh,

Ghee

Clarified butter fat

Moisture .3 .....fat 99 to 99.5

Specific gravity .93

Mp 15 to 28. BP 28 to 44

Reichert Meisel value RM max 28...in cottonseed feeding area it's 20

Polenske value PV. Max 2... Cotton seed feeding area....1.5

Saponification value min 220

Prestratification method of butter making....1st layer curd ...2nd fat...3rd

buttermilk or snf

Boudoin or phaytersterol acetate test negative

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Khoa / Mawa/khava

Heat coagulated ...fat 20 percentage....

Types...Pindi for burfi ....dhap for gulab jamun, pantoa...dhanedhar for

khalakand( by adding ciric acid to khoa)
Milk of high acidity produces a granular khoa known as Danedar

Khoa yeild....17 to 19 from cow.....21 to 23 from Buffalllo

Kalajamun is prepared from Channa or Khoa by frying

Icecream

Fat 10 protein 3.5. TS 36 ..stabilizer .5

Milk lolly fat 2 protein 3.5 TS 20

Stabiliser ...gelatin...tested by boom test...

CMC...pectin...sodium alginate(does not require

aging)...gaurgum...carrageenan...agaragar....

Emulsifiers...glycerol mono stearate...gms, CMC,egg yolk solid

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Htst 80 for 25 sec

Batch system...68.5 for half hour

Cheese

Hard cheese....moisture 43....fat 42… Hard cheese not more than 43%
moisture not less than 42 % fat

Cottage cheese is prepared from pasteurized skim milk

Mozzarella cheese is best suited for pizza making

Very hard moisture...25....hard...25-36....semi hard...36-40...soft....40

Cottage cheese 1percent fat...

No homogenisation

Calcium chloride is added to prevent calcium salt precipitation that

result in slow renneting

Optimum temperature of rennet is 41 degrees

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Thermophilic 50 degree plus...psychrophilic.. refrigerator temp..5 to

7......... mesophilic..20 to 40.....

. Blue CLR...pseudomonas syncyanae

Red ..serratia...yellow...p.synxanta..

Brown...p putrefaciens...p.flureceus

Fruity...p.fragi...burnt or caramel...strep lactis bar multigenes

1st diary plant....central diary of aureus..Bombay..1950

Amul..1956

National diary plan phase 1 2012

Military diary farm..Allahabad...

Sheep milk has more protein and fat..

Fssai STD...3% fat...8.5 SNF..

LEGAL STD...3.2 And 8.3....buffalo...5 and 9....goat...3.5/9.....toned ,

recombined(skim milk plus butteroil plus
water)/reconstituted3/8.5....double toned..1.5/9...skim milk....less than
.5/8.7
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Calorie cow/ buff::: 75 cal /100 cal in 100 g of milk...biological

value...87/84

Freezing point is sensitive test for adulteration...decrease on adding

water...by hovert cryoscope...

Freshly drawn milk is 38 degree..

In filled milk fat is veg source...

Milk and milk products order....1992

Sweet curdling ..b subtilis

Food adulteration act...1995

Microbiont bloat, bacterial thickening....torula condensii..

Gassy bloat... improper heat treatment

Fssai 2006... Fssai 2011,,

Cheese from whey....misost or ricotta cottage...

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Blue cheese...stilton cheese

Cheese with eye...Swiss...

Blue veined cheese...raquofort

Goat cheese...feta cheese..

Surface mould ripening.... camembert by penicillium

Internal mould ... raquofort and stilton...

Very Soft cheese ...cottage ramadur..moist 50 to 80

Semi hard...40 to 50'.limburger..munster

Hard...39 and fat 42,,,cheddar..Swiss.. Cheshire..parimsan

Raw milk 2 lakh CFU....PASTURISED 30K CFU...butter...50 CFU...

Most variable component fat..least is lactose

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Biopreservative of milk...niacin...

Agmark stnd for ghee...

Moist... 0.3... polenske 1 to 2

RM value min 28

Br reading 40-43

Baudouin...negative..phytosterol acetate negative..if vanaspathy ghee

used Baudouin positive

Buffalo milk is white in colour due to casein protein while cow milk is
yellow in colour due to β-carotene

Lumia prepared from mare milk is more acidic 3% than kefir...

Milk – Milk Serum= Coagulum

Milk –Milk Fat= Skim milk
Fishy odour in milk is due to kephalin while fishy odour in the egg is due
to E.coli.

hormone responsible for holding up of milk is epinephrine

Test for sterilisation …turbidity test….

Recombined milk….. skim milk powder plus water plus butter oil
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Toned milk…skim milk powder plus water

Whey….recotta cheese

Rennet is added 20 ml per 100 l in cheese

Curd minus whey is chakka,,,,it is heart of shrikand….shrikand is made

by adding chakka…

A1 milk contain Alpha casein and A2 milk contain b casein

Pscyrophillic: 3 20
0C eg: Pseudomonas fragi, P.flourescens
(Optimum is 7 0C)
● Mesophillic: 20 50
0C eg: Streptococcus cremoris, S.lactis
(Optimum is 37 0C)
● Thermophillic: Above 50 0C eg: Lactobacillus thermophillus,
Bacillus calidolactis
● Lactose fermenters – Homofermentative Strep.
cremoris, S.lactis
Heterofermentative Lactobacillus
sp, Leuconostoc sp,
● Proteolytic bacteria: B.subtilis, B.cremori, Pseudomonas putrifaciens
● Lipolytic: P.fragi, P.flouresence

ICECREAM..
Over run in ice cream not exceeding 80 %
Phosphatase test negative

Pastuerisation… Ice cream 68 0C for 30 min in batch and 80 0C for 25

sec in continious

MILK POWDER
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Drying under low temperature

● Moisture less than 5 %
● Fat not less than 26%

Standaedised milk …Fat SNF …4.5 and 8.5

Recombined , toned milk…3 and 8.5

Double toned 1.5 and 9

Skim milk…. .5 and 8.7

Clarification of ghee at 110 degree

Pilot sterilization 117 C(15 mts)
Bactofugation 55 to 60C
Homogenization 60 to 65 C

Freezing point of cheddar cheese minus 4.5

Condensed milk minus 14.9 C

Meat minus 1 to 1.5 C

Butter and ice cream should be stored at minus 23 to 28 degree

Ghee at 21 degrees

Veterinary stream notes to be uploaded soon