MIDTERM COVERAGE

 Characterize the phases of the

cell cycle and their control
points
 Describe the stages of
mitosis/meiosis given 2n=6
 Explain the significance or
applications of
mitosis/meiosis
involves the distribution of identical
genetic material or DNA to two
daughter cells.
Cell Division functions in
reproduction, growth, and repair.
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 Genetics Terminology:
Ploidy
Refers to the number of sets
of chromosomes in cells.

● Haploid – one copy of each

chromosome
– designated as “n”, the
number of
chromosomes in one “set”
- gametes

● Diploid – two sets of chromosomes

- two of each chromosome
– designated as “2n”
- somatic cells
Diploid organisms receive one of
each type of chromosome from
female parent (maternal chromosomes) and
one of each type of chromosome
from male parent (paternal chromosomes)
From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on
INTERPHASE GAP 1 PHASE Cell increases in size in preparation
(G1) for DNA synthesis.

SYNTHESIS Synthesis of DNA and DNA

PHASE (S) replication.

GAP 2 PHASE Cell continues to grow in

(G2) preparation for mitosis.

CELL MITOSIS PHASE Cell growth stops and the cell

DIVISION (M) begins to divide into two identical
cells.
 MITOSIS
Division of somatic cells
(non-reproductive cells) in
eukaryotic organisms.
- It involves only diploid
cells.

- A single cell divides into

two identical daughter
cells.
- Form asexual
reproduction for some
life (bacteria, protista,
fungi)
- END RESULT : Two
genetically identical “
daughter cells”.
 Interphase
• G1 Stage:
- Normal function performed
- Cell growth
- Organelles created

• S Stage
- Chromatin (DNA strands) duplicated

• G2 Stage
- Cell growth
- Normal function performed
Prophase

- 1st Mitosis Stage

- Chromatin (DNA
strands) coils into
chromosomes
- Nucleus dissolves
spilling the
chromosomes
- Spindle fibers form
•2ndstage of mitosis
Metaphase
•Spindle fibers attach to centromeres
of each chromosome
• Spindle fibers pull the chromosomes
to cell’s equator
•chromosomes align along
equator of the cell, with one
kinetochore facing each pole
centrio
les
chromosomes

spindle fibers
Kinetocores not pictured in this
illustration.

Images: Metaphase drawing, Henry Gray's

Anatomy of the Human Body; Metaphase Onion
 .Anaphase
• 3rd stage of mitosis

•sister chromatids separate (spindle

fibers rip apart the chromosomes )

• spindle fibers attached to

kinetochores shorten and
pull chromatids towards the
poles (1 chromatid pulled to each
direction)

• free spindle fibers lengthen

and push poles of cell apart

Images: Anaphase drawing, Henry Gray's

Anatomy of the Human Body; Anaphase Onion From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on
Telophase
• 4th stage of mitosis
•Spindle fibers dissolve
•Cytokinesis occurs (splitting of cytoplasm)
•Nucleus reforms
•Chromatids unwind into chromatin
• End result: 2 identical diploid cells

From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on

PROPHASE Duplication of chromosomes, the nuclear envelope
begins to shatter, polar spindles produced by two
centrosomes form at opposite ends of the cell.
METAPHAS Spindles are fully developed and chromosomes
E align at the center.

ANAPHAS Sister chromatids separate and begin to move to

E opposite poles of the cell.

TELOPHAS The parent cell is about to split into two identical

E daughter cells.
After telophase, cytokinesis takes place.
CYTOKINESIS

• DEFINED: Dividing of
the cytoplasm
• In animals: Cell
membrane pinches
inward
• In plants: Cell plate
begins to separate
the two new cells
 Genetics Terminology
SEXually reproducing eukaryotes, have 2 types of body cells…

Mad
e
you
look!

1. somatic cells

2. sex cells
(a.k.a. gametes)

Image: Superficial human anatomy, Mikael

Häggström& Rainer Zenz; Sperm & egg, From the Virtual Cell Biology Classroom on
• At fertilization, 23 chromosomes
are donated by each parent.
(total = 46 or 23 pairs).

• Gametes (sperm/ova):
• Contain 22 autosomes and 1 sex
chromosome.
• Are haploid (haploid number
“n” = 23 in humans).

• Fertilization results in diploid zygote.

• Diploid cell; 2n = 46. (n = 23 in humans)

• Q: Most cells in the body are produced through what type of

cell division?

• Only gametes are produced through meiosis.

MEIOSIS
- Defined: Process
where the
chromosome number
is reduced half
- Gametes created
(egg & sperm)
- End Result: Four
haploid cells
 Interphase
• Same Process:
- Growth

• S Stage
- Chromatin (DNA strands) duplicated

• G2 Stage
- Cell growth
- Normal function performed
The DNA condenses to form chromosomes.
Duplicated sister chromatids joined together at the
centromere.
Each pair of homologous chromosomes undergo
“Synapsis” to form a complex involving 2 pairs of
sister chromatids.
Chromosomes materials is exchanged between 2
pairs of sister chromatids called RECOMBINATION.
MEIOSIS I: PROPHASE I

- Similar to mitosis except…

- Two Events:
1. Synapsis: Pairing of
homologous chromosomes
• Dad’s#1 chromosome pairs
with Mom#1
• The four paired chromatids
equals a TETRAD
2. Crossing over : Exchange of
genes
• Homologues break at
identical locations, then
rejoin opposite partners.

• This creates new

combinations of the alleles
on each chromosome.

• Occurs randomly several

times on every chromosome.

• Results in mixing of the

genes you inherited from
your parents.
• Homologous chromosomes
(tetrads) align along cell
equator
• Tetrads separated
• Homologous chromosomes separate (pulled to opposite
ends) and migrate the 2 poles of the cells.
• Cytokinesis divides cell into 2 daughter
cells.
• Each cell contains 1 of the homologous
- Humans: 23 full chromosomes each
• Same as mitosis
• NOTE: No new DNA was
created (no 2nd interphase)
• No synapsis or crossing over is
observed due to single daughter
cell is the only available in the cell
produced.
• Random alignment of the
chromosomes happens in the
equator of the cell
- Sister Chromatids are pulled apart
going to the opposite end of your
cell
- Microtubules shortens
• Cytokinesis divides the cells
• Nuclear membrane reforms and cytoplasm is
divided into two (2) haploid daughter cells
• Chromatid uncoil
• End Result: Four genetically unique haploid cells.
G1 (restriction point) The point where the cell becomes
committed to undergo cell
division.
A cell is allowed to enter S phase
when it has the right size and
nutrients for the replication of
DNA.
G2 checkpoint This checkpoints prevent the cells
from entering the mitotic phase if
chromosomes are found contain
defects.
 It insures that chromosomes are
accurately replicated without
mistakes or damage before they
undergo cell division.

M checkpoint (spindle It checks if all sister chromatids

checkpoint) are attached to the spindle
microtubules.
This assessment takes place near
the end of metaphase.
G1 (restriction point)  Size. Is the cell large enough
for cell division?
 Nutrients. Does the cell carry
enough energy reserves
nutrients to proceed with cell
division?
 Molecular signals. Is the cell
receiving positive cues from the
environment?
 DNA integrity. Are there
indications any of the DNA
damaged?
G2 checkpoint DNA integrity. Is any of the DNA
damaged?
DNA replication. Was the DNA
accurately duplicated during the
S phase?

M checkpoint (spindle Straggler Chromosomes. Are

checkpoint) there chromosomes which are in
the wrong place before entering
cell division?
Example: Chromosomes which
are floating in the cytoplasm and
not properly
Explain cell modifications;
Differentiate the three
types of cell modification;
Know the importance of
cell modification in cell
adaptation to survive.
 WHAT IS A CELL MODIFICATION?

- Is the change in structure of a cell to carry out specialized

function.
- Enable the cell to perform differently and the modification
in structure occur after cell division.
TYPES OF CELL MODIFICATION

1. Apical Modifications (top)

2. Basal Modifications (bottom)
3. Lateral Modifications (sides)
4. Specialized Modifications
 I. APICAL MODIFICATION

 IS FOUND ON THE APICAL SURFACE OF THE

CELL.
 ABSORPTION, LOCOMOTION AND SECRETION
TYPES APICAL MODIFICATION

 Microvilli
 Cilia
 Stereocilia
 Flagella
b. Stereocilia
long microvilli that function
in increasing absorption
non-motile
found in sensory cells in
ear and male reproductive
tract
does not have the true
characteristic of the true
cilia or flagella
c. Flagella
The flagellum (plural-flagella) is a whip-like
structure that extends from the cell body. It
pushes the cell to a particular direction in a
propelling motion. It is connected to the
cytoplasm and contained in the cell’s plasma
membrane. The cross section flagellum
reveals an axoneme that has two single
microtubules in the center and is surround by
nine fused pairs of double microtubules. The
bottom of the axoneme is a basal body
attaches it to the cell body. The dynein arms
convert chemical energy in the form of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to mechanical
energy as it propels the movement of the
flagellum.
d. Pseudopodia
Pseudopodia are temporary
extensions of the cytoplasm.
The term comes from the words
pseudo (meaning “false”) and
podia (meaning “feet”); thus,
when translated literally, they
are “false feet”. These
structures are powered by
microfilaments near the
cellular membrane that directs
them to their target, and in an
amoeba like movement, they
will approach and engulf the
target.
II. BASAL MODIFICATIONS
Basal Infoldings
often found in epithelium that are
known to transport fluid (kidney)
will often see mitochondria in the
basal infoldings; suggests that
active transport is occurring
very important in epithelial
polarization and stability
support the epithelium and also
function as a passive molecular
sieve or ultra-filter
if basal lamina is destroyed
(trauma, infections, burns), the
epithelium will not be repaired but
substituted with a scar (connective
tissue).
III. LATERAL MODIFICATIONS
Tight Junctions (Zonula Occludens)
a band near the apical surface forms a
seal, appearing to be fused
there is 15-20 nm space between
epithelium cells
tight junction occludes/separates the
compartments

Adhering Junctions (Zonula Adherens)

the actin filaments which make up zanula
adherens maintain integrity of the cell to
better bind
found just beneath the tight junction
cytoplasmic face is linked to the actin
cytoskeleton
Gap Junctions
connexon of one membrane aligns
with connexon of adjacent
membrane so that hydrophilic
material can be transported
important in cell communication
adjacent cells are 2-3 nm apart

Desmosome (Macula Adherens)

It contains protein filaments interlock
with filaments of the adjacent cell
which form a dense intermediate
line between the cells
It helps to resist shearing forces and
are found in simple and stratified
IV. SPECIALIZED
MODIFICATIONS
Nerve cells, or neurons are
very specialized cells of the
nervous system. Since an
electrical signal needs to
travel relatively long
distances to parts of the body,
nerve cells have specialized
structures called dendrites,
which receive an electrical
signal from another neuron,
and axons, which transmit an
electrical signal to another
neuron.
Muscle cells are made up primarily of a pair of special proteins
called actin and myosin which allows the muscles to contract.
Red blood cells are a nucleate, and thus are produced from bone
marrow, but contain large amounts of hemoglobin to transport oxygen
throughout the body.
Sperm cells are haploid and contain a flagellum in order to swim
through the vagina.
Plant cells have large amounts of the organelle chloroplast, which
allow the cells to undergo photosynthesis. Plant cells are also covered
by a cell wall.